This chapter traces the development of Sunni jurisprudence, theology, and advice-to-ruler literature, showing how these traditions evolved through debate, reasoning, and adaptation to changing historical contexts. By foregrounding the methodological and doctrinal diversity within the Islamic doctrinal tradition, it challenges common misperceptions and prejudices that portray Islam as monolithic, static, anti-rational, or resistant to intellectual exchange. Instead, the chapter demonstrates that pluralism, epistemic rigor, responsiveness to political and social circumstances, and engagement with external intellectual traditions have long been defining features of the Islamic scholarly tradition. The framework presented here also maps a detailed spectrum of orthodox positions within Sunni traditions, providing a structured basis through which scholars can evaluate the extent to which contemporary arguments concerning the political legitimacy of a liberal state and Muslim allegiance to it align with mainstream Islamic understandings of political authority. In doing so, the chapter highlights the distinctive ways in which Muslims have historically navigated social and political obligations in diverse ways, while countering persistent misrepresentations of the Islamic intellectual tradition.