In the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, hymn-singing and Christianity have become important markers of Choctaw identity. The development of this specific Christian tradition has its origins in the years leading up to removal when Choctaw people combined elements of traditional ceremonial practice with belief is Jesus to create a unique creolized Christian theology. Within this new belief system, a hymn-singing tradition emerged, with authors creating new hymn texts in the Choctaw language sung to tunes in the Anglo-American sacred harp style as well as original melodic compositions. The specific language used in the hymns includes elements of traditional, pre-Christian Choctaw beliefs and worldviews within a Christian theological framework. Missionary and Choctaw use of traditional terms including kashofa, hina hanta, and ʋba yakni to refer to Christian concepts blurs the line between conversion as a rejection of traditional beliefs and conversion as a melding, or creolization of multiple traditions. These hymns have survived in a context of resistance to cultural, linguistic, and religious assimilation, creating a parallel universe to that of Anglo-American Protestantism.