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In this chapter, I examine the biological distinctions between females and males in sexually reproducing organisms. The chapter begins with an exploration of the evolutionary pressures that led to the emergence of anisogamy and two separate sexes. I then discuss how differences in reproductive costs between the sexes can lead to sexual conflict, which may be partially resolved via the evolution of sexual dimorphism or increased phenotypic differentiation between females and males. The chapter also highlights the extreme variability in levels of sexual dimorphism and the diversity of sex determination mechanisms across species. Finally, I conclude with an exploration of the complex relationship between biological sex and gender in humans and the pitfalls of conflating the two.

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The Causes and Consequences of Sex Differences

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年

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  • Gemma Puixeu Sala

摘要

In this chapter, I examine the biological distinctions between females and males in sexually reproducing organisms. The chapter begins with an exploration of the evolutionary pressures that led to the emergence of anisogamy and two separate sexes. I then discuss how differences in reproductive costs between the sexes can lead to sexual conflict, which may be partially resolved via the evolution of sexual dimorphism or increased phenotypic differentiation between females and males. The chapter also highlights the extreme variability in levels of sexual dimorphism and the diversity of sex determination mechanisms across species. Finally, I conclude with an exploration of the complex relationship between biological sex and gender in humans and the pitfalls of conflating the two.