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Background <p>Lichens are now recognized as holobionts comprising a mycobiont, photobiont, and diverse microbiomes, yet the functional roles of these additional microbial partners remain poorly characterized, especially under urbanization. Here, we used the epiphytic lichen <i>Evernia prunastri</i> from urban and natural areas to test the hypothesis that its resilience to urbanization is underpinned by functional stability and redundancy within its multi-kingdom consortium.</p> Results <p>Using an integrated approach of amplicon and shotgun metagenomic sequencing, we found that the bacterial community structure and the functional potential of the mycobiont, bacteria, and fungi remained stable despite urbanization, highlighting stability and resistance to urban environmental stress. Furthermore, by focusing on symbiosis-related functions, we found that each partner shows tendencies toward certain roles, yet we discovered broad functional overlap, suggesting microbial contributions that buffer the symbiosis. Finally, we found that <i>E. prunastri</i> and its microbiome harbors diverse biosynthetic gene clusters with predicted ecological functions relevant for the symbiosis, spanning photoprotection, oxidative stress mitigation, nutrient acquisition, defense, and chemical communication.</p> Conclusions <p>Our study provides unprecedented genomic evidence that lichen resilience is an emergent property of the integrated holobiont, where functional complementarity and redundancy among diverse symbiotic partners maintain stability under urban environmental conditions.</p>

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Functional redundancy and stability support the resilience of the Evernia prunastri holobiont under urbanization

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月9日

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  • Panji Cahya Mawarda,
  • Arjen Speksnijder,
  • Daan Krijger,
  • Juliette Berkhout,
  • Angela Hoogenboom,
  • Deniz Antonie Duijker,
  • Ahmad Nuruddin Khoiri,
  • Ken Kraaijeveld,
  • Michael Stech,
  • Floyd Wittink

摘要

Background

Lichens are now recognized as holobionts comprising a mycobiont, photobiont, and diverse microbiomes, yet the functional roles of these additional microbial partners remain poorly characterized, especially under urbanization. Here, we used the epiphytic lichen Evernia prunastri from urban and natural areas to test the hypothesis that its resilience to urbanization is underpinned by functional stability and redundancy within its multi-kingdom consortium.

Results

Using an integrated approach of amplicon and shotgun metagenomic sequencing, we found that the bacterial community structure and the functional potential of the mycobiont, bacteria, and fungi remained stable despite urbanization, highlighting stability and resistance to urban environmental stress. Furthermore, by focusing on symbiosis-related functions, we found that each partner shows tendencies toward certain roles, yet we discovered broad functional overlap, suggesting microbial contributions that buffer the symbiosis. Finally, we found that E. prunastri and its microbiome harbors diverse biosynthetic gene clusters with predicted ecological functions relevant for the symbiosis, spanning photoprotection, oxidative stress mitigation, nutrient acquisition, defense, and chemical communication.

Conclusions

Our study provides unprecedented genomic evidence that lichen resilience is an emergent property of the integrated holobiont, where functional complementarity and redundancy among diverse symbiotic partners maintain stability under urban environmental conditions.