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<p>Graphene oxide (GO) has established itself as a premier material for electrochemical biosensing due to its exceptional chemical tunability, aqueous processability, and unique sp²-sp³ hybridized structure. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of diverse engineering strategies to functionalize GO, enabling highly sensitive and selective detection of a broad spectrum of biological analytes. We systematically categorize these advancements into five key methodologies: (1) controlled reduction to precisely tune electrical conductivity and surface defects, (2) covalent functionalization for robust bioreceptor immobilization, (3) non-covalent modification to preserve biomolecular conformation, (4) metal nanoparticle hybridization for enhanced electrocatalysis, and (5) integration with polymeric/framework materials to build advanced three-dimensional sensing architectures. By examining applications ranging from small molecule metabolites and proteins to nucleic acids and whole pathogens, we demonstrate how tailored GO interfaces overcome conventional sensing trade-offs. Finally, we highlight the pivotal role of these engineered GO platforms in addressing the challenges of real-time monitoring at complex biological interfaces, including living cells and organoids, and outline the pathway toward clinically deployable diagnostic technologies.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Engineering graphene oxide interfaces for electrochemical biosensing of biomolecules, cells, and organoids

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月30日

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  • Huijung Kim,
  • Cheol-Hwi Kim,
  • Chang-Dae Kim,
  • Zhengtang Luo,
  • Tae-Hyung Kim

摘要

Graphene oxide (GO) has established itself as a premier material for electrochemical biosensing due to its exceptional chemical tunability, aqueous processability, and unique sp²-sp³ hybridized structure. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of diverse engineering strategies to functionalize GO, enabling highly sensitive and selective detection of a broad spectrum of biological analytes. We systematically categorize these advancements into five key methodologies: (1) controlled reduction to precisely tune electrical conductivity and surface defects, (2) covalent functionalization for robust bioreceptor immobilization, (3) non-covalent modification to preserve biomolecular conformation, (4) metal nanoparticle hybridization for enhanced electrocatalysis, and (5) integration with polymeric/framework materials to build advanced three-dimensional sensing architectures. By examining applications ranging from small molecule metabolites and proteins to nucleic acids and whole pathogens, we demonstrate how tailored GO interfaces overcome conventional sensing trade-offs. Finally, we highlight the pivotal role of these engineered GO platforms in addressing the challenges of real-time monitoring at complex biological interfaces, including living cells and organoids, and outline the pathway toward clinically deployable diagnostic technologies.

Graphical abstract