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Background <p>Immune checkpoint inhibitors have reshaped the treatment of several cancers, producing durable responses in a subset of patients. However, most individuals either fail to respond or eventually develop resistance. Tumor immune escape results from heterogeneous and often overlapping mechanisms, including impaired antigen presentation, limited T-cell infiltration, co-expression of multiple inhibitory receptors, and suppressive tumor microenvironmental signals. These limitations have driven the development of combination strategies aimed at restoring more effective and sustained antitumor immunity.</p> Main body <p>Among combination approaches, dual immune checkpoint blockade represents the most established strategy. The combination of CTLA-4 and PD-1 inhibitors targets complementary phases of the immune response: early T-cell priming in lymphoid organs and effector function within the tumor microenvironment. Long-term clinical data across melanoma, lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma, mesothelioma, and hepatocellular carcinoma support the ability of this approach to induce durable survival in a meaningful proportion of patients, albeit with increased immune-related toxicity. Building on this foundation, next-generation checkpoint combinations aim to counteract adaptive resistance and T-cell exhaustion. In particular, LAG-3, TIM-3, and TIGIT are frequently co-expressed with programmed death-1 on dysfunctional T cells. Emerging checkpoints such as VISTA, B7–H3, and BTLA further expand the landscape, particularly by modulating myeloid-driven suppression and advanced T-cell dysfunction. In parallel, bispecific antibodies integrating dual checkpoint targeting within a single molecule may enhance coordinated pathway inhibition and tumor localization.</p> Conclusion <p>Immune checkpoint–based combinations represent an evolving strategy of immune restoration. Future advances will depend on biologically informed trial design, dynamic biomarkers, and rational optimization of dose and sequencing to maximize durable benefit while maintaining acceptable toxicity.</p>

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Checkpoint–checkpoint combinations in cancer: from mechanistic rationale to translational impact

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月3日

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  • Alessandro Mazzocca,
  • Silvia Calagna,
  • Emanuele Claudio Mingo,
  • Silvia Cavaliere,
  • Michele Iuliani,
  • Agostina Lagodin D’Amato,
  • Luigi Scarpato,
  • Francesco Pantano,
  • Giuseppe Tonini,
  • Bruno Vincenzi,
  • Alessio Cortellini,
  • Paolo Antonio Ascierto

摘要

Background

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have reshaped the treatment of several cancers, producing durable responses in a subset of patients. However, most individuals either fail to respond or eventually develop resistance. Tumor immune escape results from heterogeneous and often overlapping mechanisms, including impaired antigen presentation, limited T-cell infiltration, co-expression of multiple inhibitory receptors, and suppressive tumor microenvironmental signals. These limitations have driven the development of combination strategies aimed at restoring more effective and sustained antitumor immunity.

Main body

Among combination approaches, dual immune checkpoint blockade represents the most established strategy. The combination of CTLA-4 and PD-1 inhibitors targets complementary phases of the immune response: early T-cell priming in lymphoid organs and effector function within the tumor microenvironment. Long-term clinical data across melanoma, lung cancer, renal cell carcinoma, mesothelioma, and hepatocellular carcinoma support the ability of this approach to induce durable survival in a meaningful proportion of patients, albeit with increased immune-related toxicity. Building on this foundation, next-generation checkpoint combinations aim to counteract adaptive resistance and T-cell exhaustion. In particular, LAG-3, TIM-3, and TIGIT are frequently co-expressed with programmed death-1 on dysfunctional T cells. Emerging checkpoints such as VISTA, B7–H3, and BTLA further expand the landscape, particularly by modulating myeloid-driven suppression and advanced T-cell dysfunction. In parallel, bispecific antibodies integrating dual checkpoint targeting within a single molecule may enhance coordinated pathway inhibition and tumor localization.

Conclusion

Immune checkpoint–based combinations represent an evolving strategy of immune restoration. Future advances will depend on biologically informed trial design, dynamic biomarkers, and rational optimization of dose and sequencing to maximize durable benefit while maintaining acceptable toxicity.