<p>Heart failure is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and fluid congestion complicates its management. Conventional home-monitoring methods, such as daily weight measurements, are insufficiently sensitive, while invasive techniques are impractical for routine use. This paper introduces a novel, non-invasive approach using textile-based dry electrodes for bio-impedance spectroscopy to detect subtle changes in thoracic fluid volume in a mouse model. Twenty-three mice underwent controlled fluid infusion into the thoracic cavity following a six-stage protocol. Bio-impedance data were collected over 256 frequencies (<InlineEquation ID="IEq1"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$3 - 1000$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mn>3</mn> <mo>-</mo> <mn>1000</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> kHz) and analyzed to extract <InlineEquation ID="IEq2"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$R_0$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> and <InlineEquation ID="IEq3"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$R_\infty$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi>∞</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, from which total (<InlineEquation ID="IEq4"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_T$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>), extra-cellular (<InlineEquation ID="IEq5"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_E$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>E</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>), and intra-cellular (<InlineEquation ID="IEq6"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_I$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>I</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>) fluid volumes were calculated and normalized to baseline. Statistical analyses included two-way ANOVA and multiple linear regression to correlate impedance measurements with animal length and weight. No statistically significant differences in normalized fluid volumes (<InlineEquation ID="IEq7"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_T$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, <InlineEquation ID="IEq8"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_E$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>E</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, <InlineEquation ID="IEq9"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_I$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>I</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>) were observed across infusion stages (<InlineEquation ID="IEq10"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$p > 0.05$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>0.05</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>), though there was an anecdotal increase in <InlineEquation ID="IEq11"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_T$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> (<InlineEquation ID="IEq12"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$\Delta V_T = 1.16 \pm 1.79$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>T</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.16</mn> <mo>±</mo> <mn>1.79</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> mL) and <InlineEquation ID="IEq13"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$V_I$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>I</mi> </msub> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> (<InlineEquation ID="IEq14"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$\Delta V_I = 1.80 \pm 2.91$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>I</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.80</mn> <mo>±</mo> <mn>2.91</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> mL) after fluid infusion. Multiple linear regression revealed moderate correlations between impedance measurements and weight (<InlineEquation ID="IEq15"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$r^2 = 0.33$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.33</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, <InlineEquation ID="IEq16"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$p = 0.035$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.035</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, RMSE <InlineEquation ID="IEq17"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$= 19.34$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>19.34</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> g) as well as length (<InlineEquation ID="IEq18"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$r^2 = 0.34$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.34</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, <InlineEquation ID="IEq19"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$p = 0.0066$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.0066</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, RMSE <InlineEquation ID="IEq20"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$= 1.00$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.00</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation> cm). Additionally, a strong correlation was found between length and weight (<InlineEquation ID="IEq21"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$r^2 = 0.81$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.81</mn> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, <InlineEquation ID="IEq22"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">$p = 5.65 \times 10^{-8}$</EquationSource> <EquationSource Format="MATHML"><math> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>5.65</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow> <mo>-</mo> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </math></EquationSource> </InlineEquation>). The results indicate that textile-based dry electrodes can non-invasively measure thoracic fluid volume in mice, although the sensor’s sensitivity to small changes is limited. Further refinement is needed to enhance sensitivity and determine sensitivity threshold. These findings support the continued development of textile-based bio-impedance sensors as a practical tool for non-invasive heart failure monitoring.</p>

Mouse model for sensitivity of fluid measurement with textile electrodes

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2026年1月29日

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Bryan Piper,
Md. Saiful Hoque,
Nasim Montazeri Ghahjaverestan,
Craig Simmons,
Azadeh Yadollahi

摘要

Heart failure is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and fluid congestion complicates its management. Conventional home-monitoring methods, such as daily weight measurements, are insufficiently sensitive, while invasive techniques are impractical for routine use. This paper introduces a novel, non-invasive approach using textile-based dry electrodes for bio-impedance spectroscopy to detect subtle changes in thoracic fluid volume in a mouse model. Twenty-three mice underwent controlled fluid infusion into the thoracic cavity following a six-stage protocol. Bio-impedance data were collected over 256 frequencies ( $3 - 1000$ $3 - 1000$ kHz) and analyzed to extract $R_0$ $R_{0}$ and $R_\infty$ $R_{\infty}$ , from which total ( $V_T$ $V_{T}$ ), extra-cellular ( $V_E$ $V_{E}$ ), and intra-cellular ( $V_I$ $V_{I}$ ) fluid volumes were calculated and normalized to baseline. Statistical analyses included two-way ANOVA and multiple linear regression to correlate impedance measurements with animal length and weight. No statistically significant differences in normalized fluid volumes ( $V_T$ $V_{T}$ , $V_E$ $V_{E}$ , $V_I$ $V_{I}$ ) were observed across infusion stages ( $p > 0.05$ $p > 0.05$ ), though there was an anecdotal increase in $V_T$ $V_{T}$ ( $\Delta V_T = 1.16 \pm 1.79$ $Δ V_{T} = 1.16 \pm 1.79$ mL) and $V_I$ $V_{I}$ ( $\Delta V_I = 1.80 \pm 2.91$ $Δ V_{I} = 1.80 \pm 2.91$ mL) after fluid infusion. Multiple linear regression revealed moderate correlations between impedance measurements and weight ( $r^2 = 0.33$ $r^{2} = 0.33$ , $p = 0.035$ $p = 0.035$ , RMSE $= 19.34$ $= 19.34$ g) as well as length ( $r^2 = 0.34$ $r^{2} = 0.34$ , $p = 0.0066$ $p = 0.0066$ , RMSE $= 1.00$ $= 1.00$ cm). Additionally, a strong correlation was found between length and weight ( $r^2 = 0.81$ $r^{2} = 0.81$ , $p = 5.65 \times 10^{-8}$ $p = 5.65 \times 10^{- 8}$ ). The results indicate that textile-based dry electrodes can non-invasively measure thoracic fluid volume in mice, although the sensor’s sensitivity to small changes is limited. Further refinement is needed to enhance sensitivity and determine sensitivity threshold. These findings support the continued development of textile-based bio-impedance sensors as a practical tool for non-invasive heart failure monitoring.