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<p>Cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic (CKM) syndrome is a multisystem condition integrating metabolic dysfunction, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and cardiovascular disease into a unified framework. CKM syndrome encompasses progressive metabolic derangements, renal injury, and cardiovascular remodeling, which interact to amplify morbidity and mortality. Lifestyle interventions (including structured weight loss, dietary modification, physical activity, and sleep optimization) form a cornerstone of prevention and management. Pharmacologic strategies targeting the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and lipid-lowering therapies provide additional multisystem benefits. In this comprehensive review, we systematically examine the most updated evidence on CKM syndrome, in terms of pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, and therapeutic strategies. We also highlight future research directions and precision medicine approaches.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic syndrome: a comprehensive review of pathophysiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and management

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月29日

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  • Stanislovas S. Jankauskas,
  • Klara Komici,
  • Fahimeh Varzideh,
  • Luigi Simone Aversa,
  • Urna Kansakar,
  • Maria Luisa D’Onghia,
  • Shivangi Pande,
  • Pasquale Mone,
  • Gaetano Santulli

摘要

Cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic (CKM) syndrome is a multisystem condition integrating metabolic dysfunction, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and cardiovascular disease into a unified framework. CKM syndrome encompasses progressive metabolic derangements, renal injury, and cardiovascular remodeling, which interact to amplify morbidity and mortality. Lifestyle interventions (including structured weight loss, dietary modification, physical activity, and sleep optimization) form a cornerstone of prevention and management. Pharmacologic strategies targeting the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and lipid-lowering therapies provide additional multisystem benefits. In this comprehensive review, we systematically examine the most updated evidence on CKM syndrome, in terms of pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, and therapeutic strategies. We also highlight future research directions and precision medicine approaches.

Graphical abstract