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Background <p>Poor nutrient retention in agricultural soils limits crop productivity and fertilizer use efficiency. Enhancing the soil capacity to retain cations such as Ca<sup>2</sup>⁺, Mg<sup>2</sup>⁺, and K⁺ is critical for sustaining plant nutrition, yet strategies that simultaneously improve cation availability and crop performance remain underexplored. This study investigated a pyrolysis temperature dependent biochar strategy to improve nutrient retention and plant performance by integrating urea with biochar produced at 300, 500, and 700&#xa0;°C.</p> Results <p>The effects of urea alone (UA) and biochar produced at 300, 500, and 700&#xa0;°C, blended with urea (BB300, BB500, BB700), and impregnated with urea (IB300, IB500, IB700), were evaluated in a soil–plant system of water spinach. Among all treatments, IB500 was the most effective, significantly improving key soil properties, including cation exchange capacity (CEC), and the availability of Ca<sup>2</sup>⁺, Mg<sup>2</sup>⁺, and K⁺, while increasing microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN). These soil improvements promoted substantial enhancements in root system architecture; IB500 resulted in a 56% increase in root length, an 81% increase in surface area, and a 91% increase in root tip formation compared to urea alone. The robust root system facilitated more vigorous shoot development, including a 33% increase in leaf number, a 59% increase in leaf area index, and a 44% increase in chlorophyll content. Physiologically, IB500 treated plants exhibited a 12% higher photosynthetic rate, a 13% increase in stomatal conductance, and a 79% increase in nitrogen uptake.</p> Conclusion <p>Biochar pyrolyzed at 500&#xa0;°C and impregnated with urea showed strong potential as a multifunctional soil amendment, enhancing nutrient retention, soil fertility, and plant physiological performance. These findings identify pyrolysis temperature as a key regulator of biochar, soil, and nutrient interactions, offering a mechanistic and sustainable strategy to improve crop productivity through rhizosphere optimization.</p> Graphical Abstract <p>Pyrolysis modified biochar integrated with urea enhances soil cation exchange capacity (CEC), retaining essential cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and K⁺). This improved soil environment promotes root development, microbial activity, and ultimately increases shoot biomass, chlorophyll content (SPAD), and net photosynthesis rate (Pₙ) compared to urea alone.</p> <p></p>

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Pyrolysis temperature regulates biochar-soil interactions to enhance cation exchange capacity, plant growth, and photosynthetic performance

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月14日

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  • Muhammad Usman Ghani,
  • Yingting Gong,
  • Tingrui Lin,
  • Yinghui Xu,
  • Ting Zeng,
  • Muhammad Kamran,
  • Muhammad Waseem,
  • Shaoying Ai

摘要

Background

Poor nutrient retention in agricultural soils limits crop productivity and fertilizer use efficiency. Enhancing the soil capacity to retain cations such as Ca2⁺, Mg2⁺, and K⁺ is critical for sustaining plant nutrition, yet strategies that simultaneously improve cation availability and crop performance remain underexplored. This study investigated a pyrolysis temperature dependent biochar strategy to improve nutrient retention and plant performance by integrating urea with biochar produced at 300, 500, and 700 °C.

Results

The effects of urea alone (UA) and biochar produced at 300, 500, and 700 °C, blended with urea (BB300, BB500, BB700), and impregnated with urea (IB300, IB500, IB700), were evaluated in a soil–plant system of water spinach. Among all treatments, IB500 was the most effective, significantly improving key soil properties, including cation exchange capacity (CEC), and the availability of Ca2⁺, Mg2⁺, and K⁺, while increasing microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN). These soil improvements promoted substantial enhancements in root system architecture; IB500 resulted in a 56% increase in root length, an 81% increase in surface area, and a 91% increase in root tip formation compared to urea alone. The robust root system facilitated more vigorous shoot development, including a 33% increase in leaf number, a 59% increase in leaf area index, and a 44% increase in chlorophyll content. Physiologically, IB500 treated plants exhibited a 12% higher photosynthetic rate, a 13% increase in stomatal conductance, and a 79% increase in nitrogen uptake.

Conclusion

Biochar pyrolyzed at 500 °C and impregnated with urea showed strong potential as a multifunctional soil amendment, enhancing nutrient retention, soil fertility, and plant physiological performance. These findings identify pyrolysis temperature as a key regulator of biochar, soil, and nutrient interactions, offering a mechanistic and sustainable strategy to improve crop productivity through rhizosphere optimization.

Graphical Abstract

Pyrolysis modified biochar integrated with urea enhances soil cation exchange capacity (CEC), retaining essential cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and K⁺). This improved soil environment promotes root development, microbial activity, and ultimately increases shoot biomass, chlorophyll content (SPAD), and net photosynthesis rate (Pₙ) compared to urea alone.