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<p>Anode-free lithium-metal batteries (AFLMBs) are assembled without active anode material and combine high energy density (~500 Wh kg<sup>−1</sup>) with simplified manufacturing. However, the influence of material selection on energy density, scalability and environmental impact remains insufficiently understood compared with conventional Li-metal batteries. In this Review, we discuss failure mechanisms, mitigation strategies and scaling of liquid-electrolyte-based AFLMBs, including both oxide-cathode-based AFLMBs and sulfide-cathode-based anode-free Li–sulfur batteries (AFLSBs). Anode-side failures occur when the anodic-to-cathodic capacity ratio falls below 1, arising from multiple root causes that can be mitigated through targeted strategies to enhance performance. Eliminating metallic Li in as-prepared AFLMBs enables simpler fabrication, easier scalability, a 10–15% higher gravimetric energy density and more efficient end-of-life handling, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by over 9.5% compared with conventional Li-metal batteries. Efficient materials and designs, focusing on the use of high-loading cathodes, lean electrolytes, and thin separators and current collectors, enhance the feasibility of AFLMBs. Advancing electrolyte design, interface stabilization and resource-efficient cell architectures will be crucial for translating AFLMBs from laboratory prototypes to scalable energy storage systems.</p>

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Failure mechanisms and scalability of anode-free lithium-metal and lithium–sulfur batteries

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月6日

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  • Kassie Nigus Shitaw,
  • Yosef Nikodimos,
  • Teklay Mezgebe Hagos,
  • Elango Balajig Tamilarasan,
  • Bereket Woldegbreal Taklu,
  • Shu-Yuan Pan,
  • Yu-Ning Chen,
  • Sheng-Chiang Yang,
  • Zabish Bilew Muche,
  • Hsuan Hsuan Su,
  • Wei-Nien Su,
  • Bing Joe Hwang

摘要

Anode-free lithium-metal batteries (AFLMBs) are assembled without active anode material and combine high energy density (~500 Wh kg−1) with simplified manufacturing. However, the influence of material selection on energy density, scalability and environmental impact remains insufficiently understood compared with conventional Li-metal batteries. In this Review, we discuss failure mechanisms, mitigation strategies and scaling of liquid-electrolyte-based AFLMBs, including both oxide-cathode-based AFLMBs and sulfide-cathode-based anode-free Li–sulfur batteries (AFLSBs). Anode-side failures occur when the anodic-to-cathodic capacity ratio falls below 1, arising from multiple root causes that can be mitigated through targeted strategies to enhance performance. Eliminating metallic Li in as-prepared AFLMBs enables simpler fabrication, easier scalability, a 10–15% higher gravimetric energy density and more efficient end-of-life handling, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by over 9.5% compared with conventional Li-metal batteries. Efficient materials and designs, focusing on the use of high-loading cathodes, lean electrolytes, and thin separators and current collectors, enhance the feasibility of AFLMBs. Advancing electrolyte design, interface stabilization and resource-efficient cell architectures will be crucial for translating AFLMBs from laboratory prototypes to scalable energy storage systems.