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<p>‘If you can measure it, it is not warm dense matter, and if you can compute it, it is not warm dense matter’ is a tongue-in-cheek aphorism for the peculiar state of matter between condensed matter and hot plasma. It is present in the interior of large planets, in small stars and transiently in inertial confinement fusion concepts. Owing to substantial developments in theoretical methods, computational capabilities and new experimental infrastructures, this definition has now become outdated. Hard X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) have proven an especially useful tool to advance the understanding of warm dense matter by allowing precision measurements that can benchmark atomistic simulations and macroscopic models with high resolution in space and time. In this Review, we provide an overview of experimental techniques and summarize the past decade of XFEL research on warm dense matter, which has been dominated by proof-of-principle experiments. Looking forward, we provide an outline of ongoing and expected facility developments in the context of prominent science goals, ranging from astrophysics to new high-performance materials and fusion energy.</p>

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Warm dense matter studies with X-ray free-electron lasers

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年12月2日

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  • Dominik Kraus,
  • Thomas R. Preston,
  • Ulf Zastrau

摘要

‘If you can measure it, it is not warm dense matter, and if you can compute it, it is not warm dense matter’ is a tongue-in-cheek aphorism for the peculiar state of matter between condensed matter and hot plasma. It is present in the interior of large planets, in small stars and transiently in inertial confinement fusion concepts. Owing to substantial developments in theoretical methods, computational capabilities and new experimental infrastructures, this definition has now become outdated. Hard X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) have proven an especially useful tool to advance the understanding of warm dense matter by allowing precision measurements that can benchmark atomistic simulations and macroscopic models with high resolution in space and time. In this Review, we provide an overview of experimental techniques and summarize the past decade of XFEL research on warm dense matter, which has been dominated by proof-of-principle experiments. Looking forward, we provide an outline of ongoing and expected facility developments in the context of prominent science goals, ranging from astrophysics to new high-performance materials and fusion energy.