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<p>Resistance to apoptosis remains a major barrier in cancer therapy, driving interest in alternative regulated cell death (RCD) programs. Paraptosis, a caspase-independent RCD marked by cytoplasmic vacuolization, ER dilation, and mitochondrial swelling, emerges as a promising vulnerability in apoptosis-refractory tumors. Its therapeutic potential has been limited by incomplete understanding of its dynamic regulation within heterogeneous tumor ecosystems. In this review, we introduce paraptotic plasticity, describing cancer cells’ ability to reversibly switch between paraptosis-sensitive and -resistant states in response to metabolic stress, therapeutic pressure, and tumor microenvironmental cues. This plasticity reveals a previously unrecognized mechanism of therapeutic resistance and uncovers exploitable vulnerabilities for precision targeting. We outline key molecular determinants, including ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, ion homeostasis, and proteotoxic stress, and highlight the emerging influence of microbiota-derived metabolites in shaping paraptotic outcomes. Finally, we discuss nanotechnology-enabled strategies that leverage these vulnerabilities, offering a translational roadmap to overcome resistance in hard-to-treat cancers.</p>

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Die hard: when cells refuse apoptosis-the rise of paraptosis and other death pathways

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月29日

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  • Cecilia Anceschi,
  • Elena Frediani,
  • Jessica Ruzzolini,
  • Francesca Margheri,
  • Anastasia Chillà,
  • Noemi Formica,
  • Elena Andreucci,
  • Fabio Cianchi,
  • Anna Laurenzana,
  • Serena Martinelli

摘要

Resistance to apoptosis remains a major barrier in cancer therapy, driving interest in alternative regulated cell death (RCD) programs. Paraptosis, a caspase-independent RCD marked by cytoplasmic vacuolization, ER dilation, and mitochondrial swelling, emerges as a promising vulnerability in apoptosis-refractory tumors. Its therapeutic potential has been limited by incomplete understanding of its dynamic regulation within heterogeneous tumor ecosystems. In this review, we introduce paraptotic plasticity, describing cancer cells’ ability to reversibly switch between paraptosis-sensitive and -resistant states in response to metabolic stress, therapeutic pressure, and tumor microenvironmental cues. This plasticity reveals a previously unrecognized mechanism of therapeutic resistance and uncovers exploitable vulnerabilities for precision targeting. We outline key molecular determinants, including ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, ion homeostasis, and proteotoxic stress, and highlight the emerging influence of microbiota-derived metabolites in shaping paraptotic outcomes. Finally, we discuss nanotechnology-enabled strategies that leverage these vulnerabilities, offering a translational roadmap to overcome resistance in hard-to-treat cancers.