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<p>Virtual water trade plays an important role in the hydrological cycle, as the water embedded in food commodities at the source region is ultimately consumed in distant locations. Vegetable crops often have relatively highwater footprints due to intensive evapotranspiration, frequent irrigation, and input use. In India, urban food systems are increasingly dependent on inter-state supply chains, yet the associated virtual water flows remain insufficiently quantified. Kannur City in northern Kerala provides a representative case, sourcing a major share of its vegetables from neighbouring states such as Karnataka, along with contributions from Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. This study quantified the blue, green, and grey water footprints of major vegetables entering the Kannur market and assessed the corresponding interstate virtual water inflows using market survey data, secondary production statistics, and crop-specific water footprint coefficients. A total vegetable import volume of 78.48&#xa0;t day⁻1 (2354.4&#xa0;t month⁻1) was recorded, with onion, tomato, cucumber, carrot, and potato accounting for nearly 69% of total imports. Market concentration analysis revealed a moderately concentrated import structure (HHI = 1571), indicating significant dependence on a limited number of commodities and source regions. Karnataka contributed approximately 69% of total vegetable imports, highlighting its dominant role in sustaining urban food supply and associated virtual water transfers to Kerala. Findings indicate that high-demand commodities such as onion, tomato, and cucumber contribute substantially to total virtual water inflows. However, certain moderately traded crops, including beans and ginger, show relatively higher water footprint intensities, particularly in green and grey components. The predominance of green WF across most vegetables reflects the largely rainfed production systems in the supplying regions. In contrast, crops such as cucumber, ginger, cluster beans, and lemon exhibit substantial blue WF contributions, indicating higher irrigation dependence and potential freshwater stress in their areas of origin. Additionally, nitrogen-intensive crops like beans and cucumber show elevated grey WF values, highlighting the pollution-related water demand embedded in Kannur’s food supply. The virtual water inflow pattern aligns with trends observed in other tropical markets, while also revealing critical inefficiencies in sourcing pathways. These findings highlight variability in water-use efficiency across crops and supply sources. The results provided useful insights into virtual water flows; however, they are subject to limitations related to secondary data use, spatial aggregation, and assumptions in WF estimation. The study highlights the need to integrate water footprint considerations into urban food system planning, agricultural trade policy, and sustainable water resource management, particularly in regions that rely heavily on imported food commodities.</p>

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Virtual water footprint assessment of selected vegetables in the Kannur Market, Northern Kerala, India: comprehensive blue, green, and grey water accounting along inter-state supply chains

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  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月21日

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  • Anvar K,
  • Fathimathul Shahana Sherin M,
  • Ashwini P,
  • Surendran U

摘要

Virtual water trade plays an important role in the hydrological cycle, as the water embedded in food commodities at the source region is ultimately consumed in distant locations. Vegetable crops often have relatively highwater footprints due to intensive evapotranspiration, frequent irrigation, and input use. In India, urban food systems are increasingly dependent on inter-state supply chains, yet the associated virtual water flows remain insufficiently quantified. Kannur City in northern Kerala provides a representative case, sourcing a major share of its vegetables from neighbouring states such as Karnataka, along with contributions from Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. This study quantified the blue, green, and grey water footprints of major vegetables entering the Kannur market and assessed the corresponding interstate virtual water inflows using market survey data, secondary production statistics, and crop-specific water footprint coefficients. A total vegetable import volume of 78.48 t day⁻1 (2354.4 t month⁻1) was recorded, with onion, tomato, cucumber, carrot, and potato accounting for nearly 69% of total imports. Market concentration analysis revealed a moderately concentrated import structure (HHI = 1571), indicating significant dependence on a limited number of commodities and source regions. Karnataka contributed approximately 69% of total vegetable imports, highlighting its dominant role in sustaining urban food supply and associated virtual water transfers to Kerala. Findings indicate that high-demand commodities such as onion, tomato, and cucumber contribute substantially to total virtual water inflows. However, certain moderately traded crops, including beans and ginger, show relatively higher water footprint intensities, particularly in green and grey components. The predominance of green WF across most vegetables reflects the largely rainfed production systems in the supplying regions. In contrast, crops such as cucumber, ginger, cluster beans, and lemon exhibit substantial blue WF contributions, indicating higher irrigation dependence and potential freshwater stress in their areas of origin. Additionally, nitrogen-intensive crops like beans and cucumber show elevated grey WF values, highlighting the pollution-related water demand embedded in Kannur’s food supply. The virtual water inflow pattern aligns with trends observed in other tropical markets, while also revealing critical inefficiencies in sourcing pathways. These findings highlight variability in water-use efficiency across crops and supply sources. The results provided useful insights into virtual water flows; however, they are subject to limitations related to secondary data use, spatial aggregation, and assumptions in WF estimation. The study highlights the need to integrate water footprint considerations into urban food system planning, agricultural trade policy, and sustainable water resource management, particularly in regions that rely heavily on imported food commodities.