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<p>This study presents an integrated assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), pollution status, ecological risk, human health risk, spatial distribution, and source apportionment in groundwater from the Birjand aquifer, eastern Iran. Twenty-eight groundwater samples were collected in 2025 and analyzed for Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Fe, and As using ICP-OES. Pb exceeded the WHO limit in 26 wells, Cr in 22 wells, and Fe and As in 2 wells each, whereas no exceedance was observed for Cu and Zn. The mean concentration order of PTEs was Zn &gt; Fe &gt; Cu &gt; Cr &gt; Pb &gt; As. GIS-based spatial analysis identified localized contamination hotspots in the northern part of the aquifer. The Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) and Heavy Metal Evaluation Index (HEI) ranged from 44.45 to 535.7 and from 2.5 to 20.75, respectively, with the highest values recorded at well No. 10 in the northern part of the aquifer. HPI classification showed that 32.14% of wells were in the high contamination category and 67.85% were in the medium-to-high category. Although PERI values generally indicated low ecological risk, Pb was the main contributor to ecological risk. Health risk assessment showed that ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway, accounting for 96.9% and 94.6% of total non-carcinogenic risk in adults and children, respectively. HI values exceeded the safe threshold in 50% of adult samples and 96.4% of child samples. Carcinogenic risk was mainly controlled by Cr, followed by As. PCA/HCA and PMF results suggested probable mixed contributions from industrial/urban-related inputs, agricultural activities, and geogenic processes. These findings highlight the need for risk-based monitoring and priority management of Pb and Cr affected wells in the Birjand aquifer.</p>

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Source identification and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in groundwater

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月2日

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  • Mohammad Reza Goodarzi,
  • Ali Jafari,
  • Vahid Jamali

摘要

This study presents an integrated assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), pollution status, ecological risk, human health risk, spatial distribution, and source apportionment in groundwater from the Birjand aquifer, eastern Iran. Twenty-eight groundwater samples were collected in 2025 and analyzed for Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Fe, and As using ICP-OES. Pb exceeded the WHO limit in 26 wells, Cr in 22 wells, and Fe and As in 2 wells each, whereas no exceedance was observed for Cu and Zn. The mean concentration order of PTEs was Zn > Fe > Cu > Cr > Pb > As. GIS-based spatial analysis identified localized contamination hotspots in the northern part of the aquifer. The Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) and Heavy Metal Evaluation Index (HEI) ranged from 44.45 to 535.7 and from 2.5 to 20.75, respectively, with the highest values recorded at well No. 10 in the northern part of the aquifer. HPI classification showed that 32.14% of wells were in the high contamination category and 67.85% were in the medium-to-high category. Although PERI values generally indicated low ecological risk, Pb was the main contributor to ecological risk. Health risk assessment showed that ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway, accounting for 96.9% and 94.6% of total non-carcinogenic risk in adults and children, respectively. HI values exceeded the safe threshold in 50% of adult samples and 96.4% of child samples. Carcinogenic risk was mainly controlled by Cr, followed by As. PCA/HCA and PMF results suggested probable mixed contributions from industrial/urban-related inputs, agricultural activities, and geogenic processes. These findings highlight the need for risk-based monitoring and priority management of Pb and Cr affected wells in the Birjand aquifer.