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<p>Cadmium (Cd (II)) contamination in aquatic systems poses serious environmental and public health risks due to its persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulative nature. Tripura, a major tea-producing region in India, generates substantial quantities of tea factory waste (TFW), which remains largely underutilized. This study investigates the valorization of chemically modified TFW as a sustainable adsorbent for Cd (II) removal in continuous fixed-bed columns. Raw TFW was modified using Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> (NTW) and HCl (HTW), characterized by SEM and FTIR analyses, and evaluated under varying bed heights (10–30&#xa0;cm), flow rates (10–20 mL/min), and influent concentrations (10–30&#xa0;mg/L). NTW consistently demonstrated superior performance, achieving a maximum adsorption capacity of 9.20&#xa0;mg/g compared to 8.63&#xa0;mg/g for HTW. Breakthrough time increased with greater bed height and lower flow rate, while higher influent concentrations accelerated column saturation. Breakthrough data were successfully described by BDST, Thomas, and Yoon–Nelson models, with strong agreement between experimental and predicted results (R² &gt; 0.96) and low error indices, confirming their suitability for design and scale-up. Regeneration studies using hot water revealed that NTW and HTW retained approximately 88.4% and 84.1% of their initial capacities after three cycles, demonstrating durable reusability. A screening-level Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) highlighted low operational energy demand during column operation and regeneration, and confirmed the environmental viability of the system within a circular economy framework. Overall, the study establishes Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>-modified tea factory waste as an efficient, regenerative, and scalable solution for Cd (II) remediation in tea-producing regions.</p>

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Tea Factory Waste for Cadmium Removal: Fixed-Bed Performance, Regeneration, and Life-Cycle Assessment towards a Circular Economy

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月19日

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  • Jibesh Datta,
  • Subhrajyoti Deb

摘要

Cadmium (Cd (II)) contamination in aquatic systems poses serious environmental and public health risks due to its persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulative nature. Tripura, a major tea-producing region in India, generates substantial quantities of tea factory waste (TFW), which remains largely underutilized. This study investigates the valorization of chemically modified TFW as a sustainable adsorbent for Cd (II) removal in continuous fixed-bed columns. Raw TFW was modified using Na2CO3 (NTW) and HCl (HTW), characterized by SEM and FTIR analyses, and evaluated under varying bed heights (10–30 cm), flow rates (10–20 mL/min), and influent concentrations (10–30 mg/L). NTW consistently demonstrated superior performance, achieving a maximum adsorption capacity of 9.20 mg/g compared to 8.63 mg/g for HTW. Breakthrough time increased with greater bed height and lower flow rate, while higher influent concentrations accelerated column saturation. Breakthrough data were successfully described by BDST, Thomas, and Yoon–Nelson models, with strong agreement between experimental and predicted results (R² > 0.96) and low error indices, confirming their suitability for design and scale-up. Regeneration studies using hot water revealed that NTW and HTW retained approximately 88.4% and 84.1% of their initial capacities after three cycles, demonstrating durable reusability. A screening-level Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) highlighted low operational energy demand during column operation and regeneration, and confirmed the environmental viability of the system within a circular economy framework. Overall, the study establishes Na2CO3-modified tea factory waste as an efficient, regenerative, and scalable solution for Cd (II) remediation in tea-producing regions.