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<p>This review article presents a comprehensive evaluation of rare earth element (REE) recovery from primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, emphasizing extraction technologies, resource distribution, and sustainability. Primary sources, including bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime, are assessed in terms of their global geological distribution, mineral characteristics, and beneficiation processes such as hydrometallurgy and flotation. The review critically evaluates global production patterns and challenges, including environmental burdens and China’s dominance in both mining and refining. For secondary sources, the study highlights the REE potential in coal fly ash, red mud, mine tailings, and phosphogypsum. Detailed analysis of extraction methods—ranging from acid leaching and bioleaching to advanced techniques like flash Joule heating and supercritical fluid extraction—highlights their viability for sustainable recovery. Tertiary sources, mainly end-of-life products such as e-waste, magnets, batteries, and fluorescent lamps, are explored with a focus on recycling technologies. Techniques such as hydrometallurgy, bioleaching, and ionic liquid extraction are examined for their effectiveness in selective REE recovery. The review addresses critical bottlenecks in industrial-scale implementation, such as low recycling rates and the need for improved policy frameworks. By integrating insights from each source type, this work proposes a roadmap for diversified, sustainable, and resilient REE supply chains.</p>

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A Review on the Potential of Rare Earth Elements from Diverse Sources

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月23日

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  • Rahul Upadhyay,
  • Satyabrata Behera,
  • Rahul Rout

摘要

This review article presents a comprehensive evaluation of rare earth element (REE) recovery from primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, emphasizing extraction technologies, resource distribution, and sustainability. Primary sources, including bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime, are assessed in terms of their global geological distribution, mineral characteristics, and beneficiation processes such as hydrometallurgy and flotation. The review critically evaluates global production patterns and challenges, including environmental burdens and China’s dominance in both mining and refining. For secondary sources, the study highlights the REE potential in coal fly ash, red mud, mine tailings, and phosphogypsum. Detailed analysis of extraction methods—ranging from acid leaching and bioleaching to advanced techniques like flash Joule heating and supercritical fluid extraction—highlights their viability for sustainable recovery. Tertiary sources, mainly end-of-life products such as e-waste, magnets, batteries, and fluorescent lamps, are explored with a focus on recycling technologies. Techniques such as hydrometallurgy, bioleaching, and ionic liquid extraction are examined for their effectiveness in selective REE recovery. The review addresses critical bottlenecks in industrial-scale implementation, such as low recycling rates and the need for improved policy frameworks. By integrating insights from each source type, this work proposes a roadmap for diversified, sustainable, and resilient REE supply chains.