Developing sustainable dryland cropping systems requires integrating economic, environmental, and energy performance. This study assessed the sustainability of dryland wheat production under four tillage systems with different levels of soil disturbance: conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT), minimum tillage with residue retention (MT+R), and zero tillage (ZT). A two-year field experiment (2023–2025) was conducted at the Dryland Agricultural Research Station in Shirvan, Iran, under semi-arid conditions. The study measured grain yield (t ha−1); energy indices—energy use efficiency (EUE), energy productivity (EP), net energy (NE), and specific energy (SE); economic indicators—gross value of production (GVP), gross return (GR), and cost–benefit ratio (CBR); and total CO₂ emissions (kg CO₂e ha−1). Grain yield differed significantly between years (p < 0.05), and inter-annual variations in energy and economic indices showed system adaptation, while total CO₂ emissions remained statistically unchanged (p > 0.05). Results indicated that grain yield responses varied significantly between years depending on the tillage system. In the first growing season, conventional tillage (CT) produced the CT produced the highest grain energy yield (35,098 MJ ha−1) and gross return (GR, 173.69 $ ha−1), but this was achieved with the highest energy input (6831.8 MJ ha−1) and consequently lower energy-use efficiency (EUE = 10.87). Zero tillage (ZT), in contrast, resulted in lower grain energy yield (43,170 MJ ha−1) and GR (109.36 $ ha−1), while requiring less energy input than CT. In the second season, ZT demonstrated clear adaptation, with grain energy yield increasing substantially to 49,104 MJ ha−1, surpassing CT (46,904 MJ ha−1), while maintaining lower energy input.This improvement was accompanied by a higher GR under ZT compared with CT (409.55 vs. 276.04 $ ha−1). Overall, in the second growing season, ZT increased grain energy yield by approximately 4.66% relative to CT and GR by 48.4%, while reducing total energy input by 12.3%. MT+R slightly improved grain energy yield (+1.67%) relative to MT, with a marginal increase in energy input (+1.5%). In the second season, MT+R increased grain energy yield by 12.35% and GR by 44.39% compared with MT, while requiring a slightly higher energy input (+2.1%). Residue retention enhanced the performance of MT; however, MT+R remained less productive than ZT, particularly in terms of grain energy yield and economic return in the second season. CO₂ emissions differed among tillage systems, with the lowest emissions observed under ZT (129.67–166.38 kg CO₂e ha−1), followed by MT+R (143.62–205.19 kg CO₂e ha−1) and MT (144.64–211.56 kg CO₂e ha−1), while CT exhibited the highest emissions (174.54–236.27 kg CO₂e ha−1). Among the measured inputs, fuel consumption and machinery use were the dominant contributors to total energy input and CO₂ emissions, whereas labor inputs played a comparatively minor role. Overall, ZT showed the best environmental performance in both years and achieved higher grain energy yield and economic returns in the second year.

Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Tillage Systems for Energy Efficiency, Economic Profitability, and CO2e Emissions in Dryland Wheat

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发表日期：

2026年2月26日

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Zahra Taghizadehtabari,
Mozaffar Roostaei

摘要

Developing sustainable dryland cropping systems requires integrating economic, environmental, and energy performance. This study assessed the sustainability of dryland wheat production under four tillage systems with different levels of soil disturbance: conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT), minimum tillage with residue retention (MT+R), and zero tillage (ZT). A two-year field experiment (2023–2025) was conducted at the Dryland Agricultural Research Station in Shirvan, Iran, under semi-arid conditions. The study measured grain yield (t ha⁻¹); energy indices—energy use efficiency (EUE), energy productivity (EP), net energy (NE), and specific energy (SE); economic indicators—gross value of production (GVP), gross return (GR), and cost–benefit ratio (CBR); and total CO₂ emissions (kg CO₂e ha⁻¹). Grain yield differed significantly between years (p < 0.05), and inter-annual variations in energy and economic indices showed system adaptation, while total CO₂ emissions remained statistically unchanged (p > 0.05). Results indicated that grain yield responses varied significantly between years depending on the tillage system. In the first growing season, conventional tillage (CT) produced the CT produced the highest grain energy yield (35,098 MJ ha⁻¹) and gross return (GR, 173.69 $ ha⁻¹), but this was achieved with the highest energy input (6831.8 MJ ha⁻¹) and consequently lower energy-use efficiency (EUE = 10.87). Zero tillage (ZT), in contrast, resulted in lower grain energy yield (43,170 MJ ha⁻¹) and GR (109.36 $ ha⁻¹), while requiring less energy input than CT. In the second season, ZT demonstrated clear adaptation, with grain energy yield increasing substantially to 49,104 MJ ha⁻¹, surpassing CT (46,904 MJ ha⁻¹), while maintaining lower energy input.This improvement was accompanied by a higher GR under ZT compared with CT (409.55 vs. 276.04 $ ha⁻¹). Overall, in the second growing season, ZT increased grain energy yield by approximately 4.66% relative to CT and GR by 48.4%, while reducing total energy input by 12.3%. MT+R slightly improved grain energy yield (+1.67%) relative to MT, with a marginal increase in energy input (+1.5%). In the second season, MT+R increased grain energy yield by 12.35% and GR by 44.39% compared with MT, while requiring a slightly higher energy input (+2.1%). Residue retention enhanced the performance of MT; however, MT+R remained less productive than ZT, particularly in terms of grain energy yield and economic return in the second season. CO₂ emissions differed among tillage systems, with the lowest emissions observed under ZT (129.67–166.38 kg CO₂e ha⁻¹), followed by MT+R (143.62–205.19 kg CO₂e ha⁻¹) and MT (144.64–211.56 kg CO₂e ha⁻¹), while CT exhibited the highest emissions (174.54–236.27 kg CO₂e ha⁻¹). Among the measured inputs, fuel consumption and machinery use were the dominant contributors to total energy input and CO₂ emissions, whereas labor inputs played a comparatively minor role. Overall, ZT showed the best environmental performance in both years and achieved higher grain energy yield and economic returns in the second year.