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<p>Groundwater in the Eastern Salt Range of Pakistan is the primary source of drinking water for local communities but is increasingly threatened by combined geogenic enrichment and anthropogenic activities, particularly mining and agriculture. In mineralized semi-arid regions, distinguishing overlapping contamination sources and associated risks remains a key challenge. This study evaluates the spatial distribution of heavy metal(loid)s (HMs), identifies dominant contamination sources, and assesses ecological and human health risks in groundwater from the Chakwal District. A total of sixty groundwater samples were analyzed for Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn, Pb, Fe, Cd, and As. Results indicate substantial spatial variability, with contamination hotspots concentrated near major coal mining areas. Chromium exhibited elevated concentrations (mean = 113&#xa0;µg/L), exceeding WHO guideline values at several locations, while Cu and Zn occurred at elevated levels relative to background conditions. Ecological risk assessment revealed extremely high risk in 42% of samples, primarily driven by Cd and As. Human health risk evaluation showed Hazard Index values exceeding unity (adults = 2.25; children = 3.15), indicating potential non-carcinogenic effects, while Total Carcinogenic Risk values surpassed acceptable thresholds (adults = 1.01 × 10⁻³; children = 2.82 × 10⁻⁴). Source apportionment indicates contributions from industrial emissions, geological weathering, agricultural runoff, and mixed sources. These findings highlight the combined influence of lithological controls and human activities on groundwater quality and underscore the need for targeted monitoring and risk-based groundwater management in mining-affected semi-arid regions.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p> <p>This visual summary illustrates the sources, transport pathways, and impacts of heavy metal(loid) (HM) contamination in groundwater of the Chakwal District, Eastern Salt Range, Pakistan. It depicts how anthropogenic activities, including coal mining, cement industry operations, agricultural inputs (fertilizers), livestock, and domestic wastewater discharge, release contaminants at the surface. These HMs infiltrate through soils and fractured lithologies via percolation processes, reaching aquifers and surface water bodies, ultimately resulting in contaminated groundwater used for domestic consumption. Spatial distribution maps highlight contamination hotspots across the study area. Multivariate statistical analyses (PCA, HCA, and PMF) are applied to identify and differentiate geogenic, industrial, agricultural, and mixed pollution sources. The framework further integrates ecological risk assessment using the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) and human health risk evaluation through Hazard Index and Total Carcinogenic Risk, identifying zones of elevated vulnerability. The figure emphasizes the combined influence of lithology and human activities on groundwater contamination and supports targeted monitoring and management in mining-affected regions.</p>

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Heavy Metal(loid) Contamination in Groundwater of the Eastern Salt Range, Pakistan: Source Apportionment and Ecological-Human Health Risk Assessment

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月12日

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  • Tofeeq Ahmad,
  • Muhammad Usman,
  • Mohammed Almeetani,
  • Alaa Ahmed,
  • Anwar Qadir,
  • Muhammad Kamran Hakeem,
  • Iltaf Shah,
  • Khawaja Hasnain Iltaf

摘要

Groundwater in the Eastern Salt Range of Pakistan is the primary source of drinking water for local communities but is increasingly threatened by combined geogenic enrichment and anthropogenic activities, particularly mining and agriculture. In mineralized semi-arid regions, distinguishing overlapping contamination sources and associated risks remains a key challenge. This study evaluates the spatial distribution of heavy metal(loid)s (HMs), identifies dominant contamination sources, and assesses ecological and human health risks in groundwater from the Chakwal District. A total of sixty groundwater samples were analyzed for Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn, Pb, Fe, Cd, and As. Results indicate substantial spatial variability, with contamination hotspots concentrated near major coal mining areas. Chromium exhibited elevated concentrations (mean = 113 µg/L), exceeding WHO guideline values at several locations, while Cu and Zn occurred at elevated levels relative to background conditions. Ecological risk assessment revealed extremely high risk in 42% of samples, primarily driven by Cd and As. Human health risk evaluation showed Hazard Index values exceeding unity (adults = 2.25; children = 3.15), indicating potential non-carcinogenic effects, while Total Carcinogenic Risk values surpassed acceptable thresholds (adults = 1.01 × 10⁻³; children = 2.82 × 10⁻⁴). Source apportionment indicates contributions from industrial emissions, geological weathering, agricultural runoff, and mixed sources. These findings highlight the combined influence of lithological controls and human activities on groundwater quality and underscore the need for targeted monitoring and risk-based groundwater management in mining-affected semi-arid regions.

Graphical Abstract

This visual summary illustrates the sources, transport pathways, and impacts of heavy metal(loid) (HM) contamination in groundwater of the Chakwal District, Eastern Salt Range, Pakistan. It depicts how anthropogenic activities, including coal mining, cement industry operations, agricultural inputs (fertilizers), livestock, and domestic wastewater discharge, release contaminants at the surface. These HMs infiltrate through soils and fractured lithologies via percolation processes, reaching aquifers and surface water bodies, ultimately resulting in contaminated groundwater used for domestic consumption. Spatial distribution maps highlight contamination hotspots across the study area. Multivariate statistical analyses (PCA, HCA, and PMF) are applied to identify and differentiate geogenic, industrial, agricultural, and mixed pollution sources. The framework further integrates ecological risk assessment using the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) and human health risk evaluation through Hazard Index and Total Carcinogenic Risk, identifying zones of elevated vulnerability. The figure emphasizes the combined influence of lithology and human activities on groundwater contamination and supports targeted monitoring and management in mining-affected regions.