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<p>This study assesses the occurrence, temporal variation, and potential human health risks of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in rainfall and harvested rainwater from Benin City, Nigeria, during the major rainy season (April–August 2025). Monthly samples were collected across five sites and analyzed for eight PBDE congeners using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with validated quality control procedures. PBDE-47, -99, and − 28 were the dominant congeners, with concentrations peaking in April, consistent with a first-flush effect following the dry season. Hazard quotients (HQ) exceeded 1.0 for six congeners (PBDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, and − 154), indicating potential non-carcinogenic risks, particularly for children. Notably, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) showed strong positive correlations with most PBDE congeners (<i>r</i> &gt; 0.90), suggesting their utility as low-cost proxy indicators of contamination in this setting. These findings highlight the need for improved e-waste management, point-of-use filtration, and expanded monitoring in tropical urban watersheds reliant on rainwater harvesting.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p> <p>The graphical abstract illustrates the atmospheric deposition and transport of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs within an urban rainwater harvesting system in Benin City, Nigeria. It conceptually depicts (i) accumulation of PBDE-associated dust and particulates on rooftops during the dry season, (ii) mobilization of these contaminants by early-season rainfall through a first-flush process, and (iii) conveyance into household rainwater storage tanks used for domestic supply. The figure highlights three key insights: seasonal elevation of PBDE levels at the onset of the rainy season, strong co-variation between PBDEs and basic physicochemical parameters (pH and electrical conductivity), and the resulting implications for human exposure and risk mitigation. Overall, the graphic emphasizes process-driven relationships among hydrological dynamics, water chemistry, and contaminant transport rather than absolute concentration values.</p>

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Using Simple Physicochemical Parameters pH and Electrical Conductivity to Indicate PBDE Contamination and Assess Human Health Risks in Tropical Rainwater Harvesting Systems

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月7日

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  • Ilemobayo Ifedayo Oguntimehin,
  • Thompson Faraday Ediagbonya,
  • Blessing Boboye,
  • Opeyemi Rotimi Omokungbe,
  • David Olabanjo Sanni,
  • Mahesh Bade

摘要

This study assesses the occurrence, temporal variation, and potential human health risks of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in rainfall and harvested rainwater from Benin City, Nigeria, during the major rainy season (April–August 2025). Monthly samples were collected across five sites and analyzed for eight PBDE congeners using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with validated quality control procedures. PBDE-47, -99, and − 28 were the dominant congeners, with concentrations peaking in April, consistent with a first-flush effect following the dry season. Hazard quotients (HQ) exceeded 1.0 for six congeners (PBDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, and − 154), indicating potential non-carcinogenic risks, particularly for children. Notably, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) showed strong positive correlations with most PBDE congeners (r > 0.90), suggesting their utility as low-cost proxy indicators of contamination in this setting. These findings highlight the need for improved e-waste management, point-of-use filtration, and expanded monitoring in tropical urban watersheds reliant on rainwater harvesting.

Graphical Abstract

The graphical abstract illustrates the atmospheric deposition and transport of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs within an urban rainwater harvesting system in Benin City, Nigeria. It conceptually depicts (i) accumulation of PBDE-associated dust and particulates on rooftops during the dry season, (ii) mobilization of these contaminants by early-season rainfall through a first-flush process, and (iii) conveyance into household rainwater storage tanks used for domestic supply. The figure highlights three key insights: seasonal elevation of PBDE levels at the onset of the rainy season, strong co-variation between PBDEs and basic physicochemical parameters (pH and electrical conductivity), and the resulting implications for human exposure and risk mitigation. Overall, the graphic emphasizes process-driven relationships among hydrological dynamics, water chemistry, and contaminant transport rather than absolute concentration values.