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<p>Additive manufacturing via Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) enables the fabrication of functional components using bio-based polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) and carbon-fiber-reinforced PLA (PLA/CF). However, their long-term performance in humid and marine environments remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the hydrothermal durability of FDM-printed PLA and PLA/CF under immersion in distilled water and ocean water for five weeks under static and agitated conditions at 20&#xa0;°C, 30&#xa0;°C, and 40&#xa0;°C. Water uptake exhibited Fickian-type behavior, with rapid initial absorption followed by saturation. Maximum absorption reached ~ 0.9% for PLA and ~ 2.8% for PLA/CF at 40&#xa0;°C in distilled water. Hydrothermal aging induced measurable mechanical degradation. PLA flexural strength decreased from 107.42&#xa0;MPa to ~ 99.69&#xa0;MPa under severe aging, whereas PLA/CF decreased from 69.31&#xa0;MPa to ~ 63.17&#xa0;MPa. The flexural modulus showed stronger degradation in PLA/CF, decreasing from 2489.57&#xa0;MPa to 1621.64&#xa0;MPa under ocean water exposure at 40&#xa0;°C, compared to PLA, which decreased from 2615.97&#xa0;MPa to 2156.04&#xa0;MPa. Conversely, flexural strain increased from 5.71% to 7.83% for PLA and from 7.94% to 13.34% for PLA/CF, confirming moisture-induced plasticization and interfacial weakening. Statistical analysis confirmed temperature as the dominant degradation factor, while water chemistry and agitation modulated diffusion kinetics and interfacial damage mechanisms. The results demonstrate that carbon fiber reinforcement improves initial stiffness but increases hydrothermal sensitivity due to fiber–matrix interface degradation. This work provides quantitative durability benchmarks for PLA-based materials intended for humid and marine applications.</p>

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Hydrothermal durability of 3D-printed PLA-carbon fiber composites: assessing mechanical degradation in distilled and ocean water

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月4日

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  • Cyrine Lahiani,
  • Maroua Jabeur,
  • Dalel Daassi,
  • Slim Souissi,
  • Mohamed Chamkha

摘要

Additive manufacturing via Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) enables the fabrication of functional components using bio-based polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) and carbon-fiber-reinforced PLA (PLA/CF). However, their long-term performance in humid and marine environments remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the hydrothermal durability of FDM-printed PLA and PLA/CF under immersion in distilled water and ocean water for five weeks under static and agitated conditions at 20 °C, 30 °C, and 40 °C. Water uptake exhibited Fickian-type behavior, with rapid initial absorption followed by saturation. Maximum absorption reached ~ 0.9% for PLA and ~ 2.8% for PLA/CF at 40 °C in distilled water. Hydrothermal aging induced measurable mechanical degradation. PLA flexural strength decreased from 107.42 MPa to ~ 99.69 MPa under severe aging, whereas PLA/CF decreased from 69.31 MPa to ~ 63.17 MPa. The flexural modulus showed stronger degradation in PLA/CF, decreasing from 2489.57 MPa to 1621.64 MPa under ocean water exposure at 40 °C, compared to PLA, which decreased from 2615.97 MPa to 2156.04 MPa. Conversely, flexural strain increased from 5.71% to 7.83% for PLA and from 7.94% to 13.34% for PLA/CF, confirming moisture-induced plasticization and interfacial weakening. Statistical analysis confirmed temperature as the dominant degradation factor, while water chemistry and agitation modulated diffusion kinetics and interfacial damage mechanisms. The results demonstrate that carbon fiber reinforcement improves initial stiffness but increases hydrothermal sensitivity due to fiber–matrix interface degradation. This work provides quantitative durability benchmarks for PLA-based materials intended for humid and marine applications.