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<p>Clayey soils have long been utilized as construction materials due to their low environmental impact and inherent thermal insulation capabilities. However, their mechanical limitations and variability in performance have hindered broader application in modern sustainable construction. This study explores the novel use of red and green clays, either individually or in combination with supplementary cementitious materials, as geopolymer precursors to develop optimized, low-carbon unfired earth blocks. An innovative stabilization strategy is proposed by partially replacing natural clay with metakaolin (5–20%) and activating the blends using sodium-based alkali solutions. A comprehensive experimental campaign evaluated compressive, flexural, and split-tensile strengths, thermal conductivity, and durability. The compressive strength ranged from 4.35 to 24.41 MPa, flexural strength from 2.04 to 9.53 MPa, and split tensile strength from 0.43 to 5.01 MPa, depending on clay type and metakaolin content. A multi-criteria decision-making framework (TOPSIS with entropy weighting) was applied to rank the formulations. The results demonstrated that increasing metakaolin content significantly enhances performance, with the red clay + 20% metakaolin mixture achieving the highest performance index (0.992). The life cycle assessment (IMPACT 2002+) revealed a reduction of up to 47% in CO₂-equivalent emissions (global warming potential) compared to conventional concrete masonry blocks, with reductions reaching 70.7% at low metakaolin substitution levels. This study provides a novel integration of material optimization, performance-based ranking, and environmental quantification, supporting the development of geopolymer earth blocks as a high-performance and low-carbon solution for sustainable construction.</p>

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Low-carbon optimized stabilization technique for unfired earth blocks: mechanical performance and environmental impact

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月13日

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  • Wahib Arairo,
  • Firas Barraj,
  • Makram El Bachawati,
  • Houssam Affan,
  • Marianne Saba

摘要

Clayey soils have long been utilized as construction materials due to their low environmental impact and inherent thermal insulation capabilities. However, their mechanical limitations and variability in performance have hindered broader application in modern sustainable construction. This study explores the novel use of red and green clays, either individually or in combination with supplementary cementitious materials, as geopolymer precursors to develop optimized, low-carbon unfired earth blocks. An innovative stabilization strategy is proposed by partially replacing natural clay with metakaolin (5–20%) and activating the blends using sodium-based alkali solutions. A comprehensive experimental campaign evaluated compressive, flexural, and split-tensile strengths, thermal conductivity, and durability. The compressive strength ranged from 4.35 to 24.41 MPa, flexural strength from 2.04 to 9.53 MPa, and split tensile strength from 0.43 to 5.01 MPa, depending on clay type and metakaolin content. A multi-criteria decision-making framework (TOPSIS with entropy weighting) was applied to rank the formulations. The results demonstrated that increasing metakaolin content significantly enhances performance, with the red clay + 20% metakaolin mixture achieving the highest performance index (0.992). The life cycle assessment (IMPACT 2002+) revealed a reduction of up to 47% in CO₂-equivalent emissions (global warming potential) compared to conventional concrete masonry blocks, with reductions reaching 70.7% at low metakaolin substitution levels. This study provides a novel integration of material optimization, performance-based ranking, and environmental quantification, supporting the development of geopolymer earth blocks as a high-performance and low-carbon solution for sustainable construction.