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<p>Limestone calcined clay cement (LC<sup>3</sup>) is emerging as a viable and sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC), addressing the pressing need for low-carbon building materials. This review examines the chemistry, performance, durability, and environmental benefits of LC<sup>3</sup>, particularly its ability to replace up to 50% of clinker by combining calcined clay preferably kaolinite-rich and limestone. LC<sup>3</sup> systems support the formation of durable hydration products such as C-A-S–H and carboaluminates, which improve microstructural densification, reduce porosity, and enhance long-term strength. The use of low-grade kaolinitic clays, even with &lt; 40% kaolinite content, has shown promise when properly calcined (700–800&#xa0;°C), enabling broader local material sourcing. The incorporation of fibers such as polypropylene, polyethylene, steel, and carbon further enhance the ductility, toughness, and mechanical resilience of LC<sup>3</sup>-based composites. Durability assessments reveal LC<sup>3</sup>’s superior resistance to acid and sulfate attacks, chloride penetration, and alkali–silica reaction (ASR), while carbonation-induced corrosion can be effectively managed through appropriate design measures. Economically, LC<sup>3</sup> offers reduced energy consumption, lower production costs, and compatibility with existing cement manufacturing infrastructure. Life cycle assessments demonstrate up to 30% reductions in CO₂ emissions compared to OPC, with even greater savings in high-strength concrete applications. Overall, LC<sup>3</sup> presents a scalable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable solution for reducing the cement industry’s carbon footprint, especially in regions with limited access to high-quality SCMs. Continued research into low-grade clay activation and long-term performance will further support its global adoption.</p>

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LC3 systems: a review of chemistry, performance, durability, and sustainability toward market adoption

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月21日

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  • Rahul Prashar,
  • Roop Kishor,
  • Arya Anuj Jee

摘要

Limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) is emerging as a viable and sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC), addressing the pressing need for low-carbon building materials. This review examines the chemistry, performance, durability, and environmental benefits of LC3, particularly its ability to replace up to 50% of clinker by combining calcined clay preferably kaolinite-rich and limestone. LC3 systems support the formation of durable hydration products such as C-A-S–H and carboaluminates, which improve microstructural densification, reduce porosity, and enhance long-term strength. The use of low-grade kaolinitic clays, even with < 40% kaolinite content, has shown promise when properly calcined (700–800 °C), enabling broader local material sourcing. The incorporation of fibers such as polypropylene, polyethylene, steel, and carbon further enhance the ductility, toughness, and mechanical resilience of LC3-based composites. Durability assessments reveal LC3’s superior resistance to acid and sulfate attacks, chloride penetration, and alkali–silica reaction (ASR), while carbonation-induced corrosion can be effectively managed through appropriate design measures. Economically, LC3 offers reduced energy consumption, lower production costs, and compatibility with existing cement manufacturing infrastructure. Life cycle assessments demonstrate up to 30% reductions in CO₂ emissions compared to OPC, with even greater savings in high-strength concrete applications. Overall, LC3 presents a scalable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable solution for reducing the cement industry’s carbon footprint, especially in regions with limited access to high-quality SCMs. Continued research into low-grade clay activation and long-term performance will further support its global adoption.