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<p>Limestone calcined clay cement (LC<sup>3</sup>) has emerged as a low-carbon alternative over the past decade. However, its development is challenged by the kaolinite content in available clays and its lower early-age strength. This study addresses both issues by activating low-grade montmorillonite clay through oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide treatments. Five activation methods were applied to enhance the reactivity of the low-grade montmorillonite clay, including acid- and alkali-based treatments implemented through submersion and co-calcination approaches. Treated clays and corresponding LC<sup>3</sup> blends were characterized using XRF and quantitative XRD analysis. Acidic and alkaline treatments enriched SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ content, enhancing reactivity. Co-calcination increased the reactive amorphous aluminosilicate phase derived from kaolinite while reducing quartz crystallinity, whereas submersion facilitated partial illite dissolution. These transformations improved cement reactivity and compressive strength, confirmed through strength testing at 2, 7, and 28&#xa0;days. Reactivity of coupled activation regimes increased from 167 to 323% in comparison to calcination treatment alone. The strength of LC<sup>3</sup> blends was enhanced through various activation methods, with acidic activation via co-calcination (OX-Pow) delivering the highest early-age performance. This treatment also achieved the greatest overall strength, remaining 9% above the calcined clay reference and outperforming all other activation routes. This approach presents a viable strategy for optimizing next-generation cementitious blends.</p>

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Acidic and alkaline activation routes for enhancing low-grade clays performance in developing limestone calcined clay cement (LC3)

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月10日

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  • Miral Fatima,
  • Mounir Ltifi,
  • Khuram Rashid,
  • Idrees Zafar

摘要

Limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) has emerged as a low-carbon alternative over the past decade. However, its development is challenged by the kaolinite content in available clays and its lower early-age strength. This study addresses both issues by activating low-grade montmorillonite clay through oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide treatments. Five activation methods were applied to enhance the reactivity of the low-grade montmorillonite clay, including acid- and alkali-based treatments implemented through submersion and co-calcination approaches. Treated clays and corresponding LC3 blends were characterized using XRF and quantitative XRD analysis. Acidic and alkaline treatments enriched SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ content, enhancing reactivity. Co-calcination increased the reactive amorphous aluminosilicate phase derived from kaolinite while reducing quartz crystallinity, whereas submersion facilitated partial illite dissolution. These transformations improved cement reactivity and compressive strength, confirmed through strength testing at 2, 7, and 28 days. Reactivity of coupled activation regimes increased from 167 to 323% in comparison to calcination treatment alone. The strength of LC3 blends was enhanced through various activation methods, with acidic activation via co-calcination (OX-Pow) delivering the highest early-age performance. This treatment also achieved the greatest overall strength, remaining 9% above the calcined clay reference and outperforming all other activation routes. This approach presents a viable strategy for optimizing next-generation cementitious blends.