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<p>Despite substantial economic growth and expansion of welfare programmes, inequality of opportunity remains a defining feature of childhood in India. This study examines disparities in children’s access to education, healthcare, and basic housing services using data from three rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3, NFHS-4, and NFHS-5). Grounded in Roemer’s inequality of opportunity framework, Sen’s capability approach, and Tilly’s theory of durable inequality, the study conceptualises unequal access as disparities arising from circumstances beyond children’s control, including caste, parental education, household wealth, gender, and regional location. Methodologically, the study combines the Human Opportunity Index (HOI) with Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis to capture both aggregate opportunity deficits and the multidimensional, intersectional nature of deprivation. The findings reveal substantial improvements in overall coverage of basic opportunities between 2005–06 and 2019–2021, particularly in immunisation, institutional delivery, electricity, and school entry. However, progress remains uneven across sectors. Timely completion of elementary education and sanitation continue to exhibit comparatively lower HOI values and higher inequality, indicating persistent structural barriers affecting socially and economically disadvantaged&#xa0;children. The analysis identifies parental education—especially mother’s education—household wealth, and regional location as the most influential determinants of unequal opportunities. Regional disparities remain particularly pronounced, with Southern and Western India consistently outperforming the Central and Eastern regions across most indicators. The CART analysis further demonstrates that deprivation is cumulative rather than additive. Children belonging to Scheduled Tribe (ST)&#xa0;and Scheduled Caste (SC)&#xa0;households in poorer rural and geographically lagging regions emerge as the most severely disadvantaged groups. The study concludes that universal expansion in service coverage alone is insufficient to eliminate deeply embedded inequalities. Future policy must move beyond aggregate targets toward equity-oriented, region-specific, and intersectional interventions focused on historically marginalised children and structurally deprived regions.</p>

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Unequal Beginnings: Inequality of Opportunity in Children’s Access to Education, Health, and Basic Services in India

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月25日

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  • Shruthi Menon,
  • S. Madheswaran

摘要

Despite substantial economic growth and expansion of welfare programmes, inequality of opportunity remains a defining feature of childhood in India. This study examines disparities in children’s access to education, healthcare, and basic housing services using data from three rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3, NFHS-4, and NFHS-5). Grounded in Roemer’s inequality of opportunity framework, Sen’s capability approach, and Tilly’s theory of durable inequality, the study conceptualises unequal access as disparities arising from circumstances beyond children’s control, including caste, parental education, household wealth, gender, and regional location. Methodologically, the study combines the Human Opportunity Index (HOI) with Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis to capture both aggregate opportunity deficits and the multidimensional, intersectional nature of deprivation. The findings reveal substantial improvements in overall coverage of basic opportunities between 2005–06 and 2019–2021, particularly in immunisation, institutional delivery, electricity, and school entry. However, progress remains uneven across sectors. Timely completion of elementary education and sanitation continue to exhibit comparatively lower HOI values and higher inequality, indicating persistent structural barriers affecting socially and economically disadvantaged children. The analysis identifies parental education—especially mother’s education—household wealth, and regional location as the most influential determinants of unequal opportunities. Regional disparities remain particularly pronounced, with Southern and Western India consistently outperforming the Central and Eastern regions across most indicators. The CART analysis further demonstrates that deprivation is cumulative rather than additive. Children belonging to Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Scheduled Caste (SC) households in poorer rural and geographically lagging regions emerge as the most severely disadvantaged groups. The study concludes that universal expansion in service coverage alone is insufficient to eliminate deeply embedded inequalities. Future policy must move beyond aggregate targets toward equity-oriented, region-specific, and intersectional interventions focused on historically marginalised children and structurally deprived regions.