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<p>This study examines the process-structure-function relationship in 4D honeycomb architectures fabricated by Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) using a PLA/TPU (90/10 wt%) composite filament. Two-dimensional hexagonal bending-dominated structures were printed with two-layer heights (0.32&#xa0;mm and 0.40&#xa0;mm) and mechanically programmed by uniaxial compression up to 16.3% nominal strain, within the stable collapse plateau and without entering densification. A 2² factorial design was implemented to evaluate the influence of layer height and activation temperature (65 °C and 85 °C) on geometric recovery. The evolution of structural height over time was quantified through image analysis, and the recovery percentage R(%) was calculated. Results are reported as mean ± standard deviation, and a two-way ANOVA was performed to assess the statistical significance of the evaluated factors. Activation temperature was identified as the dominant factor governing geometric recovery (p &lt; 0.05). In particular, activation at 85 °C, above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the PLA/TPU system, resulted in higher recovery levels (above 70%) and lower variability among replicates. In contrast, activation at 65 °C led to lower and more variable recovery responses. Layer height did not show a statistically significant effect (p &gt; 0.05), although experimental trends suggest a secondary influence associated with interlayer cohesion and structural stability during mechanical programming. The results indicate that the 4D response arises from the interaction between thermal activation, manufacturing parameters, and cellular architecture, providing a comprehensive understanding of the process-structure-function relationship in FFF-based 4D printing systems.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Effect of activation temperature and layer height on the geometric recovery of 4D honeycomb structures via fused filament fabrication using PLA/TPU (90/10 wt%) filament

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月19日

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  • Cristian Felipe Otálora Roa,
  • Luis Alejandro Boyacá Mendivelso,
  • Liz Karen Herrera Quintero

摘要

This study examines the process-structure-function relationship in 4D honeycomb architectures fabricated by Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) using a PLA/TPU (90/10 wt%) composite filament. Two-dimensional hexagonal bending-dominated structures were printed with two-layer heights (0.32 mm and 0.40 mm) and mechanically programmed by uniaxial compression up to 16.3% nominal strain, within the stable collapse plateau and without entering densification. A 2² factorial design was implemented to evaluate the influence of layer height and activation temperature (65 °C and 85 °C) on geometric recovery. The evolution of structural height over time was quantified through image analysis, and the recovery percentage R(%) was calculated. Results are reported as mean ± standard deviation, and a two-way ANOVA was performed to assess the statistical significance of the evaluated factors. Activation temperature was identified as the dominant factor governing geometric recovery (p < 0.05). In particular, activation at 85 °C, above the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the PLA/TPU system, resulted in higher recovery levels (above 70%) and lower variability among replicates. In contrast, activation at 65 °C led to lower and more variable recovery responses. Layer height did not show a statistically significant effect (p > 0.05), although experimental trends suggest a secondary influence associated with interlayer cohesion and structural stability during mechanical programming. The results indicate that the 4D response arises from the interaction between thermal activation, manufacturing parameters, and cellular architecture, providing a comprehensive understanding of the process-structure-function relationship in FFF-based 4D printing systems.

Graphical Abstract