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<p>A three-dimensional model utilizing the finite difference method (FDM) was developed to visualize the deposition phenomena in the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. The presented computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model incorporates heat and mass transfer, droplet impingement, gravity, solid–liquid phase changes, and fluid flow equations, facilitating the prediction of thin-wall formation prior to experimental manufacturing, which is an inherent limitation of conventional Finite Element-based Methods (FEM). Furthermore, in contrast to prior FDM-based models, which have typically been constrained to the limited timeframes, the proposed approach enables realistic process simulation by using simplification assumptions under conventionally applied low-current and extended deposition time in a novel implementation. The established model employs the surface tension temperature-dependent equation as the main controlling factor in boundary conditions, and it can fairly identify the most crucial deposited layer that is sensitive to sagging by integrating the energy, mass, momentum, and modified volume of fluid (VOF) equations. The numerical model has been validated through 25 successive deposits of ER70S6 and ER316L wire steel layers over 3400&#xa0;s, maintaining an average margin of error within ten percent. Based on the simulation results, the critical surface tension pressure could serve as a key parameter for assessing manufacturing stability and detecting the potential risk of sagging due to its simultaneous dependence on both temperature and the viscosity of molten material. This adaptability has the potential to significantly reduce defects and foster a more sustainable manufacturing environment. </p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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A long-term and pragmatic numerical simulation of wire arc additively manufactured ER70S6 and ER316L thin-wall via finite difference method

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年8月29日

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  • Habib Hamed Zargari,
  • Seyyed Ahmadreza Khajeh Mohammadilar,
  • Vahid Ziaei Laleh

摘要

A three-dimensional model utilizing the finite difference method (FDM) was developed to visualize the deposition phenomena in the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. The presented computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model incorporates heat and mass transfer, droplet impingement, gravity, solid–liquid phase changes, and fluid flow equations, facilitating the prediction of thin-wall formation prior to experimental manufacturing, which is an inherent limitation of conventional Finite Element-based Methods (FEM). Furthermore, in contrast to prior FDM-based models, which have typically been constrained to the limited timeframes, the proposed approach enables realistic process simulation by using simplification assumptions under conventionally applied low-current and extended deposition time in a novel implementation. The established model employs the surface tension temperature-dependent equation as the main controlling factor in boundary conditions, and it can fairly identify the most crucial deposited layer that is sensitive to sagging by integrating the energy, mass, momentum, and modified volume of fluid (VOF) equations. The numerical model has been validated through 25 successive deposits of ER70S6 and ER316L wire steel layers over 3400 s, maintaining an average margin of error within ten percent. Based on the simulation results, the critical surface tension pressure could serve as a key parameter for assessing manufacturing stability and detecting the potential risk of sagging due to its simultaneous dependence on both temperature and the viscosity of molten material. This adaptability has the potential to significantly reduce defects and foster a more sustainable manufacturing environment.

Graphical abstract