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Purpose of review <p>Non-oxidizing antimicrobials (NOAMs) are extensively used in domestic and industrial applications due to their excellent chemical stability and broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy. These compounds are frequently detected in surface waters globally, raising significant ecological concerns. This review aims to clarify the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of NOAMs in global surface waters and the key factors influencing their occurrence. Furthermore, it evaluates the toxicity, mobility, and biodegradability of NOAMs and their transformation products.</p> Recent findings <p>Global monitoring indicates that the concentrations of NOAMs in surface waters vary significantly across regions. While regulatory measures correlate with reduced loads in wastewater, pandemic-driven use, non-point sources, and sediment release also influence surface water levels. Carbendazim poses high ecological risk; azoles, triclosan, and isothiazolinones show moderate risk; quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are low risk. Most NOAMs form more mobile transformation products during photolysis or oxidation. Although isothiazolinone and climbazole products are generally less toxic, nearly 50% of fluconazole’s products exceed parental toxicity. Biodegradability varies: isothiazolinone products degrade readily, QAC products persist longer than the parent compound, and azole-related products often endure for months.</p> Summary <p>Ecological risk assessments of NOAMs must extend beyond parent compounds to fully account for the toxicity, mobility, and biodegradability of their transformation products. Future chemical management should adopt a life-cycle risk assessment framework that incorporates the environmental fate of transformation products into monitoring programs. Although many NOAMs are functionally interchangeable as antimicrobials, they differ substantially in ecological risk and treatability. Therefore, regulatory strategies should shift from end-of-pipe treatment toward source-oriented design, prioritizing low-toxicity, readily treatable green alternatives.</p>

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Spatiotemporal Distribution Patterns and Risk Assessment of Non-oxidizing Antimicrobials (NOAMs) in Environments: A Global Perspective

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月30日

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  • Jia-Qi Song,
  • Shu-Chang Pang,
  • Dao-Qian Chen,
  • Nan Huang

摘要

Purpose of review

Non-oxidizing antimicrobials (NOAMs) are extensively used in domestic and industrial applications due to their excellent chemical stability and broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy. These compounds are frequently detected in surface waters globally, raising significant ecological concerns. This review aims to clarify the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of NOAMs in global surface waters and the key factors influencing their occurrence. Furthermore, it evaluates the toxicity, mobility, and biodegradability of NOAMs and their transformation products.

Recent findings

Global monitoring indicates that the concentrations of NOAMs in surface waters vary significantly across regions. While regulatory measures correlate with reduced loads in wastewater, pandemic-driven use, non-point sources, and sediment release also influence surface water levels. Carbendazim poses high ecological risk; azoles, triclosan, and isothiazolinones show moderate risk; quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are low risk. Most NOAMs form more mobile transformation products during photolysis or oxidation. Although isothiazolinone and climbazole products are generally less toxic, nearly 50% of fluconazole’s products exceed parental toxicity. Biodegradability varies: isothiazolinone products degrade readily, QAC products persist longer than the parent compound, and azole-related products often endure for months.

Summary

Ecological risk assessments of NOAMs must extend beyond parent compounds to fully account for the toxicity, mobility, and biodegradability of their transformation products. Future chemical management should adopt a life-cycle risk assessment framework that incorporates the environmental fate of transformation products into monitoring programs. Although many NOAMs are functionally interchangeable as antimicrobials, they differ substantially in ecological risk and treatability. Therefore, regulatory strategies should shift from end-of-pipe treatment toward source-oriented design, prioritizing low-toxicity, readily treatable green alternatives.