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<p>Scaffold development requires porous structures with controlled porosity (~ 50–70%) and pore sizes (~ 200–1000&#xa0;μm) to enable bone regeneration and critical-size defect healing. The biomaterials evolve from bioinert metals (stainless steel, titanium, magnesium, etc.) to multifunctional composite fabrication (polylactic acid/hydroxyapatite, chitosan/gelatin, hydroxyapatite/graphene oxide, etc.), which creates biomimetic scaffolds (mostly at 70% porosity) to mimic the spongy bone structure (coexistence of material and pores) and functionality, thereby promoting bone reconstruction. Recently, triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) have emerged for scaffold design (sheet/solid network) with periodically repeated geometries without self-intersection, tuned surface area at lower volume fraction (12–22 mm<sup>2</sup>/mm<sup>3</sup>). Uniform, functionally graded (2–5&#xa0;mm cell size, 0.20–0.60 relative density), and multi-geometry (gyroid/diamond topologies) TPMS scaffolds are introduced that improve efficacy in achieving mechanical stability and cellular activity (flattened-elongated morphology, mineral deposition, and growing progressively). Among fabrication techniques, three-dimensional (3D) printing, namely fused deposition modeling, stereolithography, and selective laser melting, allows the precise fabrication (~ 20–100&#xa0;μm resolution) of these complex (curved and gradient variation) and patient-specific scaffolds. This review provides a consolidation of ongoing progress by correlating (i) material evolution with scaffold functional performance, (ii) presenting conventional and 3D printing techniques, accounting process specific limitations, (iii) critically discussing uniform, functionally graded, and multi-geometry hybrid TPMS architectures, and (iv) identifying concrete research gaps toward clinically translational scaffolds.</p>

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Advancement of scaffold design and fabrication for bone regeneration

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月4日

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  • Raj Kumar,
  • Janakarajan Ramkumar,
  • Kantesh Balani

摘要

Scaffold development requires porous structures with controlled porosity (~ 50–70%) and pore sizes (~ 200–1000 μm) to enable bone regeneration and critical-size defect healing. The biomaterials evolve from bioinert metals (stainless steel, titanium, magnesium, etc.) to multifunctional composite fabrication (polylactic acid/hydroxyapatite, chitosan/gelatin, hydroxyapatite/graphene oxide, etc.), which creates biomimetic scaffolds (mostly at 70% porosity) to mimic the spongy bone structure (coexistence of material and pores) and functionality, thereby promoting bone reconstruction. Recently, triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) have emerged for scaffold design (sheet/solid network) with periodically repeated geometries without self-intersection, tuned surface area at lower volume fraction (12–22 mm2/mm3). Uniform, functionally graded (2–5 mm cell size, 0.20–0.60 relative density), and multi-geometry (gyroid/diamond topologies) TPMS scaffolds are introduced that improve efficacy in achieving mechanical stability and cellular activity (flattened-elongated morphology, mineral deposition, and growing progressively). Among fabrication techniques, three-dimensional (3D) printing, namely fused deposition modeling, stereolithography, and selective laser melting, allows the precise fabrication (~ 20–100 μm resolution) of these complex (curved and gradient variation) and patient-specific scaffolds. This review provides a consolidation of ongoing progress by correlating (i) material evolution with scaffold functional performance, (ii) presenting conventional and 3D printing techniques, accounting process specific limitations, (iii) critically discussing uniform, functionally graded, and multi-geometry hybrid TPMS architectures, and (iv) identifying concrete research gaps toward clinically translational scaffolds.