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<p>Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) increasingly appear in organic recycling streams, yet their behaviour during full-scale windrow composting remains unclear. Thirty-three PFAS analytes were tracked through commercial composting of food organics and garden organics (FOGO) at 14, 30, and 45&#xa0;days, and in finished compost. Total concentration analysis, leachability testing (ASLP), exploratory leachate assessment, total oxidisable precursor assay (TOPA), and microbial community profiling were undertaken. Σ33 PFAS in compost solids decreased by &gt; 98% by day 45, from 97&#xa0;µg/kg in feedstock to 1.7&#xa0;µg/kg. The feedstock was dominated by PFBA (~ 92% of Σ33 PFAS), which became undetectable, while PFHxA became dominant in the final product, consistent with precursor transformation. ASLP indicated high early-stage mobility of short-chain PFAS (PFBA detected in feedstock leachate) but minimal leachability thereafter. Although most field leachate samples were below reporting limits, particulate fractions contained measurable PFAS, highlighting particle-bound transport pathways, emphasising the need to consider dissolved and particulate phases in leachate handling. The total oxidisable precursor assay showed increased short-chain PFCAs across stages, supporting precursor transformation. For the first time, correlations between PFAS concentrations and microbial community dynamics were assessed, revealing no significant association between α-diversity metrics and PFAS levels, suggesting limited effects on richness at observed concentrations. Overall, windrow composting substantially reduced measured solid-phase PFAS concentrations, with observed changes more likely reflecting redistribution, mobilisation, and precursor transformation rather than complete degradation, indicating that PFAS-related risks may persist. Effective management should combine feedstock control and leachate monitoring, while future work addresses precursor pathways and long-term PFAS fate.</p>

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Impact of windrow composting on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: insights into leaching and transformation

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月23日

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  • S. Khair Biek,
  • L. S. Khudur,
  • M. Askeland,
  • J. Jones,
  • C. Krohn,
  • J. Besedin,
  • G. Aguilar Jr.,
  • A. S. Ball

摘要

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) increasingly appear in organic recycling streams, yet their behaviour during full-scale windrow composting remains unclear. Thirty-three PFAS analytes were tracked through commercial composting of food organics and garden organics (FOGO) at 14, 30, and 45 days, and in finished compost. Total concentration analysis, leachability testing (ASLP), exploratory leachate assessment, total oxidisable precursor assay (TOPA), and microbial community profiling were undertaken. Σ33 PFAS in compost solids decreased by > 98% by day 45, from 97 µg/kg in feedstock to 1.7 µg/kg. The feedstock was dominated by PFBA (~ 92% of Σ33 PFAS), which became undetectable, while PFHxA became dominant in the final product, consistent with precursor transformation. ASLP indicated high early-stage mobility of short-chain PFAS (PFBA detected in feedstock leachate) but minimal leachability thereafter. Although most field leachate samples were below reporting limits, particulate fractions contained measurable PFAS, highlighting particle-bound transport pathways, emphasising the need to consider dissolved and particulate phases in leachate handling. The total oxidisable precursor assay showed increased short-chain PFCAs across stages, supporting precursor transformation. For the first time, correlations between PFAS concentrations and microbial community dynamics were assessed, revealing no significant association between α-diversity metrics and PFAS levels, suggesting limited effects on richness at observed concentrations. Overall, windrow composting substantially reduced measured solid-phase PFAS concentrations, with observed changes more likely reflecting redistribution, mobilisation, and precursor transformation rather than complete degradation, indicating that PFAS-related risks may persist. Effective management should combine feedstock control and leachate monitoring, while future work addresses precursor pathways and long-term PFAS fate.