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<p>Amid escalating concerns over resource scarcity and environmental decline, this study reports the first acid-free, ferrocene-assisted synthesis of graphene oxide (GO) from oilseed cakes (Soybean and Groundnut), offering an eco-friendly route to transform agro-residues into value-added nanomaterials. Agricultural biomass residues are becoming more widely recognized as beneficial carbon sources that can be repurposed within affordable and environmentally feasible approaches. In the edible oil sector, oilseed cakes, the solid-state residue left as a byproduct of oil extraction, are rich in proteins, fibers and micronutrients. The oilseed residues can contribute to food security, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and help sustain the waste that contributes to global sustainability goals. Unlike conventional Hummer’s methods that rely on strong acids and oxidants, this work utilizes a solid-state thermal exfoliation mechanism. The GO-SOC and GO-GOC nanosheets were characterized by High- Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM), X-ray Photoelectron Microscopy (XPS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), UV visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Photoluminescence (PL), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric–differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA). XPS analysis confirmed the successful introduction of oxygenated functional groups (C-O, C = O, O-C = O) on the graphitic lattice. The SEM images suggest that the morphologies are sheet-like and randomly distributed, and the Raman spectra display strong D and G bands indicating significant edge defects and sp<sup>3</sup> hybridization induced by oxidation. EDX confirmed that GO-SOC comprised 75% carbon and 25% oxygen, while GO-GOC contained 72% carbon, 22% oxygen, and 6% silicon. Brine shrimp lethality assays demonstrated preliminary biocompatibility, with survival rates of 90% for GO-SOC and 70% for GO-GOC after 48&#xa0;h. Furthermore, the synthesized GO nanosheets exhibited potent antimicrobial and anti-fungal activity, attributed to Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation and direct membrane disruption. Additionally, GO-SOC exhibited pronounced anti-inflammatory (78.33 ± 0.57%) and antioxidant (83.7 ± 0.05%) activity at 50&#xa0;µg/mL. In 3T3-L1 cells, with SOC maintaining a superior 84.35% viability compared to 78.56% for GOC at 100&#xa0;µg/mL. In HepG2 cancer lines, both materials exhibited potent dose-dependent antiproliferative effects at 450&#xa0;µg/mL, reaching viability levels of 50.40% and 51%, respectively. This work introduces a novel valorization strategy for oilseed cakes, offering a circular and scalable approach for converting agro waste into biofunctional nanomaterials with promising biomedical applications.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Unprecedented valorization of agro-industrial oil cakes waste into graphene oxide nanosheets: A sustainable route for biomedical applications

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月19日

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  • Godwin Daniel Thomas Raj S,
  • J. Judith Vijaya

摘要

Amid escalating concerns over resource scarcity and environmental decline, this study reports the first acid-free, ferrocene-assisted synthesis of graphene oxide (GO) from oilseed cakes (Soybean and Groundnut), offering an eco-friendly route to transform agro-residues into value-added nanomaterials. Agricultural biomass residues are becoming more widely recognized as beneficial carbon sources that can be repurposed within affordable and environmentally feasible approaches. In the edible oil sector, oilseed cakes, the solid-state residue left as a byproduct of oil extraction, are rich in proteins, fibers and micronutrients. The oilseed residues can contribute to food security, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and help sustain the waste that contributes to global sustainability goals. Unlike conventional Hummer’s methods that rely on strong acids and oxidants, this work utilizes a solid-state thermal exfoliation mechanism. The GO-SOC and GO-GOC nanosheets were characterized by High- Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM), X-ray Photoelectron Microscopy (XPS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), UV visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Photoluminescence (PL), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric–differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA). XPS analysis confirmed the successful introduction of oxygenated functional groups (C-O, C = O, O-C = O) on the graphitic lattice. The SEM images suggest that the morphologies are sheet-like and randomly distributed, and the Raman spectra display strong D and G bands indicating significant edge defects and sp3 hybridization induced by oxidation. EDX confirmed that GO-SOC comprised 75% carbon and 25% oxygen, while GO-GOC contained 72% carbon, 22% oxygen, and 6% silicon. Brine shrimp lethality assays demonstrated preliminary biocompatibility, with survival rates of 90% for GO-SOC and 70% for GO-GOC after 48 h. Furthermore, the synthesized GO nanosheets exhibited potent antimicrobial and anti-fungal activity, attributed to Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation and direct membrane disruption. Additionally, GO-SOC exhibited pronounced anti-inflammatory (78.33 ± 0.57%) and antioxidant (83.7 ± 0.05%) activity at 50 µg/mL. In 3T3-L1 cells, with SOC maintaining a superior 84.35% viability compared to 78.56% for GOC at 100 µg/mL. In HepG2 cancer lines, both materials exhibited potent dose-dependent antiproliferative effects at 450 µg/mL, reaching viability levels of 50.40% and 51%, respectively. This work introduces a novel valorization strategy for oilseed cakes, offering a circular and scalable approach for converting agro waste into biofunctional nanomaterials with promising biomedical applications.

Graphical Abstract