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<p>Avian malaria is a serious disease affecting diverse bird species worldwide, caused by protozoan parasites of the genus <i>Plasmodium</i> and transmitted exclusively by infected mosquitoes. The parasite completes its life cycle in both the avian host and the mosquito vector, undergoing multiple developmental stages. Clinical signs range from mild to severe and may include lethargy, anemia, respiratory distress, altered feeding behavior, and reduced activity, with young or immunocompromised birds particularly vulnerable to mortality. Diagnosis relies on a combination of clinical observations and laboratory methods, including traditional blood smears and serology alongside molecular tools such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), metagenomics, and transcriptomics. Treatment options are limited, typically involving antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine phosphate, primaquine phosphate, mefloquine, sulfachloropyrazine, sulfaquinoxaline, Trimethoprim, and Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine combination along with supportive care and environmental management. Control strategies target both vectors and hosts, including habitat modification, chemical application, chemo-sterilization, the use of endosymbionts like <i>Wolbachia,</i> housing management, drainage of water bodies, biosecurity measures, vaccination, and the rearing of genetically resistant avian breeds. Ongoing research into the ecology of avian malaria and its vectors is essential for developing effective prevention strategies and mitigating its impact on vulnerable bird populations. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the epidemiology, transmission dynamics, and ecological consequences of avian malaria, with the goal of informing conservation and management strategies.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Avian malaria: an in-depth overview on its biology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, economic impacts, diagnostic, treatment and control strategies

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年12月20日

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  • Tewodros Alemneh,
  • Wassie Molla,
  • Seid Abdela,
  • Samir Medjekal,
  • Mourad Guetouache

摘要

Avian malaria is a serious disease affecting diverse bird species worldwide, caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium and transmitted exclusively by infected mosquitoes. The parasite completes its life cycle in both the avian host and the mosquito vector, undergoing multiple developmental stages. Clinical signs range from mild to severe and may include lethargy, anemia, respiratory distress, altered feeding behavior, and reduced activity, with young or immunocompromised birds particularly vulnerable to mortality. Diagnosis relies on a combination of clinical observations and laboratory methods, including traditional blood smears and serology alongside molecular tools such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), metagenomics, and transcriptomics. Treatment options are limited, typically involving antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine phosphate, primaquine phosphate, mefloquine, sulfachloropyrazine, sulfaquinoxaline, Trimethoprim, and Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine combination along with supportive care and environmental management. Control strategies target both vectors and hosts, including habitat modification, chemical application, chemo-sterilization, the use of endosymbionts like Wolbachia, housing management, drainage of water bodies, biosecurity measures, vaccination, and the rearing of genetically resistant avian breeds. Ongoing research into the ecology of avian malaria and its vectors is essential for developing effective prevention strategies and mitigating its impact on vulnerable bird populations. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the epidemiology, transmission dynamics, and ecological consequences of avian malaria, with the goal of informing conservation and management strategies.

Graphical Abstract