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<p>This study examines miniature iron artefacts from the <i>Ba</i> Mausoleum of Emperor Wen to explore the technical strategies for making these iron ritual items. Analyses of 42 samples identified three principal production pathways: mould-casting, annealing-forging, and fining-forging, indicating a diverse range of processing techniques derived from a cast iron-based production system. The technological choices evident in these ritual artefacts, however, diverge significantly from those of contemporary utilitarian ironware. Most significant is the use of labour-intensive forging for ritual items, despite the availability of efficient alternatives. This technical extravagance contradicts the overarching ideology of frugality (Bo-Zang) advocated by Emperor Wen, as evidenced by historical records. We argue that iron served primarily as a medium to reconcile ideological frugality with the need for institutional symbolism in the afterlife bureaucracy, rather than reflecting a strict adherence to cost-saving in the manufacturing process. Consequently, the principle of frugality was not uniformly applied, with factors such as artisan autonomy and inconsistent institutional oversight likely exerting a stronger influence on the final technological choices.</p>

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Style over substance: the making of iron “toys” for emperor wen’s afterlife

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月10日

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  • Yaxiong Liu,
  • Long Cao,
  • Chenlu Zhu,
  • Wanwan Zhang,
  • Kunlong Chen

摘要

This study examines miniature iron artefacts from the Ba Mausoleum of Emperor Wen to explore the technical strategies for making these iron ritual items. Analyses of 42 samples identified three principal production pathways: mould-casting, annealing-forging, and fining-forging, indicating a diverse range of processing techniques derived from a cast iron-based production system. The technological choices evident in these ritual artefacts, however, diverge significantly from those of contemporary utilitarian ironware. Most significant is the use of labour-intensive forging for ritual items, despite the availability of efficient alternatives. This technical extravagance contradicts the overarching ideology of frugality (Bo-Zang) advocated by Emperor Wen, as evidenced by historical records. We argue that iron served primarily as a medium to reconcile ideological frugality with the need for institutional symbolism in the afterlife bureaucracy, rather than reflecting a strict adherence to cost-saving in the manufacturing process. Consequently, the principle of frugality was not uniformly applied, with factors such as artisan autonomy and inconsistent institutional oversight likely exerting a stronger influence on the final technological choices.