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<p>The dynamics of predator-prey systems are profoundly influenced by both consumptive and non-consumptive effects. Although non-consumptive fear and its carry-over effects have received increasing research attention, their interaction with predator switching behavior remains poorly understood in stochastic environments. In this paper, we develop a novel two-prey-one-predator model that simultaneously incorporates fear and predator switching behavior in a fluctuating environment simulated by Gaussian white noise. For the deterministic model, we establish the positivity and boundedness of solutions, the existence of equilibria, and conduct local stability and bifurcation analyses. In the stochastic model, we demonstrate that environmental fluctuations can induce significant shifts in population densities and may lead to population extinction under high noise intensity, revealing a critical risk not predicted by deterministic frameworks. These results underscore the necessity of integrating behavioral adaptations, long-term physiological costs, and environmental stochasticity to accurately predict ecosystem dynamics and resilience.</p>

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Fear and its carry-over effects in a two-prey-one-predator system featuring switching behaviour in predation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月24日

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  • Zhiyuan Li,
  • Daoxiang Zhang,
  • Zhaoxin Li,
  • Wen Zhou

摘要

The dynamics of predator-prey systems are profoundly influenced by both consumptive and non-consumptive effects. Although non-consumptive fear and its carry-over effects have received increasing research attention, their interaction with predator switching behavior remains poorly understood in stochastic environments. In this paper, we develop a novel two-prey-one-predator model that simultaneously incorporates fear and predator switching behavior in a fluctuating environment simulated by Gaussian white noise. For the deterministic model, we establish the positivity and boundedness of solutions, the existence of equilibria, and conduct local stability and bifurcation analyses. In the stochastic model, we demonstrate that environmental fluctuations can induce significant shifts in population densities and may lead to population extinction under high noise intensity, revealing a critical risk not predicted by deterministic frameworks. These results underscore the necessity of integrating behavioral adaptations, long-term physiological costs, and environmental stochasticity to accurately predict ecosystem dynamics and resilience.