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Purpose of Review <p>Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors are foundational components of therapy across many solid tumors, yet primary and acquired resistance limit durable benefit for a substantial proportion of patients. Rather than attempting a broad survey of every disease area, this review deliberately focuses on three tumor types in which PD-(L)1–based combinations have generated the most mature, practice-relevant evidence and in which the field is evolving most rapidly: renal cell carcinoma (RCC), urothelial (bladder) cancer, and non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). For each, we examine how combinations are being developed and positioned across the advanced, adjuvant, and neoadjuvant/perioperative settings, and we place selected cross-cutting strategies (dual checkpoint blockade, antibody–drug conjugates, hypoxia-inducible factor [HIF]-2α inhibition, and other partners) in that disease-specific context.</p> Recent Findings <p>In RCC, immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) plus vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) doublets are established first-line standards, adjuvant pembrolizumab is the first agent to improve both disease-free and overall survival after nephrectomy, and the HIF-2α inhibitor belzutifan has become a post-ICI/TKI option while being tested earlier in disease. In bladder cancer, the antibody–drug conjugate enfortumab vedotin combined with pembrolizumab has displaced platinum chemotherapy as first-line therapy for advanced disease, and perioperative durvalumab added to neoadjuvant chemotherapy improves event-free and overall survival in muscle-invasive disease. In NSCLC, neoadjuvant and perioperative chemoimmunotherapy regimens now demonstrate overall survival benefit, complementing established advanced-disease and adjuvant strategies. We also summarize combinations that have failed—most notably concurrent PD-(L)1 blockade with EGFR or ALK TKIs in oncogene-driven NSCLC, and anti-TIGIT antibodies in phase III—because these negative results are as instructive as the successes.</p> Summary <p> Within RCC, bladder cancer, and NSCLC, next-generation PD-(L)1 combinations are reshaping treatment across all disease stages. The magnitude of benefit, the relevant biomarkers, and the toxicity trade-offs differ substantially by tumor type and by setting. Successful development depends on a sound biologic rationale, biomarker-informed patient selection, and careful toxicity management, and the evidence base remains uneven—ranging from mature phase III data to early signals—which we make explicit throughout.</p>

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Next-Generation Checkpoint Combinations: Optimizing PD-(L)1–Based Therapy Across the Advanced, Adjuvant, and Neoadjuvant Settings

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月6日

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  • Fausto Petrelli,
  • Lara Colombo Zefinetti,
  • Andrea D’Alessio,
  • Lorenzo Dottorini,
  • Antonio Ghidini

摘要

Purpose of Review

Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors are foundational components of therapy across many solid tumors, yet primary and acquired resistance limit durable benefit for a substantial proportion of patients. Rather than attempting a broad survey of every disease area, this review deliberately focuses on three tumor types in which PD-(L)1–based combinations have generated the most mature, practice-relevant evidence and in which the field is evolving most rapidly: renal cell carcinoma (RCC), urothelial (bladder) cancer, and non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). For each, we examine how combinations are being developed and positioned across the advanced, adjuvant, and neoadjuvant/perioperative settings, and we place selected cross-cutting strategies (dual checkpoint blockade, antibody–drug conjugates, hypoxia-inducible factor [HIF]-2α inhibition, and other partners) in that disease-specific context.

Recent Findings

In RCC, immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) plus vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) doublets are established first-line standards, adjuvant pembrolizumab is the first agent to improve both disease-free and overall survival after nephrectomy, and the HIF-2α inhibitor belzutifan has become a post-ICI/TKI option while being tested earlier in disease. In bladder cancer, the antibody–drug conjugate enfortumab vedotin combined with pembrolizumab has displaced platinum chemotherapy as first-line therapy for advanced disease, and perioperative durvalumab added to neoadjuvant chemotherapy improves event-free and overall survival in muscle-invasive disease. In NSCLC, neoadjuvant and perioperative chemoimmunotherapy regimens now demonstrate overall survival benefit, complementing established advanced-disease and adjuvant strategies. We also summarize combinations that have failed—most notably concurrent PD-(L)1 blockade with EGFR or ALK TKIs in oncogene-driven NSCLC, and anti-TIGIT antibodies in phase III—because these negative results are as instructive as the successes.

Summary

Within RCC, bladder cancer, and NSCLC, next-generation PD-(L)1 combinations are reshaping treatment across all disease stages. The magnitude of benefit, the relevant biomarkers, and the toxicity trade-offs differ substantially by tumor type and by setting. Successful development depends on a sound biologic rationale, biomarker-informed patient selection, and careful toxicity management, and the evidence base remains uneven—ranging from mature phase III data to early signals—which we make explicit throughout.