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<p>Global decline of amphibians is inevitable; however, certain species continue to thrive in diverse habitats due to highly evolved life-history traits. The Asian common toad, <i>Duttaphrynus melanostictus</i> (Schneider, 1799), is one of the most widespread anuran species and is ranked as the third highest-scoring alien amphibian worldwide in terms of its detrimental effect on biodiversity. However, detailed information on the developmental history of parotoid glands in Asian common toad is sparse. Here, we examined the ontogeny of the parotoid glands using histological and histochemical methods. The results revealed that the integument of early stage tadpoles is largely unspecialized, characterized by the aggregation of precursor cells (giant cells). As development progresses (stage 41), these giant cells begin to differentiate into mucous and serous glands in parotoid region. In juvenile toads, the serous glands in the parotoid region further specialize, developing into granular and non-granular acini. In adults, the parotoid glands comprise a complex assembly of glands, including granular and non-granular types, as confirmed by histochemical staining, alongside mucous glands. Additionally, adult toads exhibit distinct dorsal and ventral integument features with numerous protrusions. Histochemical analysis indicated that the parotoid gland serves multiple functions: it secretes alkaloid-rich compounds for predator deterrence and provides protection against desiccation. The high lipid content in the secretions from both granular and non-granular serous glands, along with the morphological adaptations of the integument, such as the Eberth-Kastschenko layer, indicates adaptations to terrestrial environments. This is likely one of the reasons for the successful global invasion of this species.</p>

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Unveiling the multifaceted structure and nature of parotoid glands in the invasive Asian common toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799): An ontogenic perspective

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年8月14日

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  • Samadhan Phuge,
  • Sachin M. Gosavi,
  • Sarika Torawane,
  • Radhakrishna Pandit,
  • Varsha Wankhade,
  • Sanjay S. Kharat

摘要

Global decline of amphibians is inevitable; however, certain species continue to thrive in diverse habitats due to highly evolved life-history traits. The Asian common toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799), is one of the most widespread anuran species and is ranked as the third highest-scoring alien amphibian worldwide in terms of its detrimental effect on biodiversity. However, detailed information on the developmental history of parotoid glands in Asian common toad is sparse. Here, we examined the ontogeny of the parotoid glands using histological and histochemical methods. The results revealed that the integument of early stage tadpoles is largely unspecialized, characterized by the aggregation of precursor cells (giant cells). As development progresses (stage 41), these giant cells begin to differentiate into mucous and serous glands in parotoid region. In juvenile toads, the serous glands in the parotoid region further specialize, developing into granular and non-granular acini. In adults, the parotoid glands comprise a complex assembly of glands, including granular and non-granular types, as confirmed by histochemical staining, alongside mucous glands. Additionally, adult toads exhibit distinct dorsal and ventral integument features with numerous protrusions. Histochemical analysis indicated that the parotoid gland serves multiple functions: it secretes alkaloid-rich compounds for predator deterrence and provides protection against desiccation. The high lipid content in the secretions from both granular and non-granular serous glands, along with the morphological adaptations of the integument, such as the Eberth-Kastschenko layer, indicates adaptations to terrestrial environments. This is likely one of the reasons for the successful global invasion of this species.