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<p>This study explores how precursor molarity influences the electrochromic performance of ZnO thin films, emphasizing its impact on optical bandgap, electrical conductivity, skin depth, and crystallite size. ZnO films were deposited on glass via ultrasonic spray pyrolysis using dehydrated zinc acetate at varying molarities (0.05–0.15&#xa0;mol/l). The deposition was carried out at 350&#xa0;°C, with 5&#xa0;cm nozzle-to-substrate distance and 10&#xa0;min time. X-ray diffraction confirmed the hexagonal wurtzite-type structure across all samples. The largest crystallite size (18.7&#xa0;nm) appeared at 0.15&#xa0;mol/l, indicating enhanced crystallinity. Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy showed that this molarity also yielded the lowest average skin depth (33&#xa0;nm), enhancing light absorption and electrochromic contrast. The optical bandgap remained optimal at 3.269 ± 0.005&#xa0;eV, while electrical conductivity peaked at 2.29 (Ω.cm)<sup>−1</sup> at 0.075&#xa0;mol/l. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the most uniform surface morphology, aiding effective light modulation, was produced at zinc acetate molarity 0.1&#xa0;mol/l. Light modulation refers to the material’s ability to alter its optical transmission and absorption in response to an electric field, a key feature in electrochromic switching. To model these relationships, predictive equations for optical bandgap (<i>E</i><sub><i>g</i></sub>) and average skin depth (<i>δ</i>) were developed, achieving high accuracy. At 0.15&#xa0;mol/l, the minimum prediction error for<i> δ</i> was 2.47%, and the <i>E</i><sub><i>g</i></sub> models showed excellent consistency. These results confirm the reliability of the models at low molarities, though further refinement is needed for higher concentrations. In conclusion, a precursor molarity of 0.1&#xa0;mol/l offers an optimal balance of properties, including enhanced light absorption, favorable conductivity, and optimal bandgap, positioning the ZnO films as a strong candidate for high-performance ZnO-based electrochromic devices.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Model-Based Engineering of ZnO Thin Films via Precursor Molarity for Enhanced Electrochromic Functionality

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年9月10日

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  • Mohamed Othmane,
  • Abdallah Attaf,
  • Fouad Bouaichi

摘要

This study explores how precursor molarity influences the electrochromic performance of ZnO thin films, emphasizing its impact on optical bandgap, electrical conductivity, skin depth, and crystallite size. ZnO films were deposited on glass via ultrasonic spray pyrolysis using dehydrated zinc acetate at varying molarities (0.05–0.15 mol/l). The deposition was carried out at 350 °C, with 5 cm nozzle-to-substrate distance and 10 min time. X-ray diffraction confirmed the hexagonal wurtzite-type structure across all samples. The largest crystallite size (18.7 nm) appeared at 0.15 mol/l, indicating enhanced crystallinity. Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy showed that this molarity also yielded the lowest average skin depth (33 nm), enhancing light absorption and electrochromic contrast. The optical bandgap remained optimal at 3.269 ± 0.005 eV, while electrical conductivity peaked at 2.29 (Ω.cm)−1 at 0.075 mol/l. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the most uniform surface morphology, aiding effective light modulation, was produced at zinc acetate molarity 0.1 mol/l. Light modulation refers to the material’s ability to alter its optical transmission and absorption in response to an electric field, a key feature in electrochromic switching. To model these relationships, predictive equations for optical bandgap (Eg) and average skin depth (δ) were developed, achieving high accuracy. At 0.15 mol/l, the minimum prediction error for δ was 2.47%, and the Eg models showed excellent consistency. These results confirm the reliability of the models at low molarities, though further refinement is needed for higher concentrations. In conclusion, a precursor molarity of 0.1 mol/l offers an optimal balance of properties, including enhanced light absorption, favorable conductivity, and optimal bandgap, positioning the ZnO films as a strong candidate for high-performance ZnO-based electrochromic devices.

Graphical abstract