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<p>Informal repair of used lead–acid batteries (ULABs) represent a significant yet poorly regulated source of heavy metal contamination in urban Indian. This study examined surface soils (0–5&#xa0;cm; <i>n</i> = 39) from ULAB repair sites across three cities in central India (Bhopal, Mandideep, and Chhindwara), with semi-urban controls (<i>n</i> = 5), quantifying 21 elements and evaluating human health risks using the USEPA framework. ULAB-affected soils showed extreme enrichment of Pb (median: 539.8&#xa0;mg/kg; IQR: 211.9–2421.3&#xa0;mg/kg; ~ 48-fold&#xa0;enrichment) and Sb (median:&#xa0;17.3&#xa0;mg/kg;&#xa0;IQR:&#xa0;5.5–39 mg/kg; ~ 29-fold&#xa0;enrichment), with moderate enrichment of Ag, Se, Zn, Cd, Cu, and As (~ 2.5–12-fold)&#xa0;relative to semi-urban control soils. Lithogenic elements showed minimal enrichment. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment indicated greater risk&#xa0;in children (hazard index, HI = 0.98),&#xa0;approaching the acceptable threshold, compared to adults (HI = 0.10), with Sb as the major contributor. Ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway, accounting for 88.6% of total exposure in children and 80.1% in adults. Although Pb lacks a reference dose, margin of exposure (MOE) analysis indicated very high risk in children (MOE = 0.08) and moderate risk in adults (MOE = 1.41). Lifetime carcinogenic risks from As, Cd, and Cr yielded total risks of 2.49 × 10⁻<sup>4</sup> for children (exceeding the commonly accepted threshold of 1 × 10⁻<sup>4</sup>) and 2.67 × 10⁻<sup>5</sup> for adults (within the acceptable range). Chromium dominated cancer risk despite low enrichment, reflecting its high toxic potency. Overall, informal ULAB repair activities generate distinct Pb and Sb co-contamination hotspots posing significant health risks, particularly for children, underscoring the need for targeted regulation and exposure mitigation.</p>

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Lead and antimony enrichment in soils near informal lead–acid battery repair shops in central India and associated human health risks

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月15日

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  • Aarti Sahu,
  • Saquib Ali,
  • Kamini Arya,
  • Bhagyashree Meena,
  • Surbhi Mathur,
  • Animesh Kumar,
  • Subbiah Rajasekaran,
  • Rajesh Ahirwar

摘要

Informal repair of used lead–acid batteries (ULABs) represent a significant yet poorly regulated source of heavy metal contamination in urban Indian. This study examined surface soils (0–5 cm; n = 39) from ULAB repair sites across three cities in central India (Bhopal, Mandideep, and Chhindwara), with semi-urban controls (n = 5), quantifying 21 elements and evaluating human health risks using the USEPA framework. ULAB-affected soils showed extreme enrichment of Pb (median: 539.8 mg/kg; IQR: 211.9–2421.3 mg/kg; ~ 48-fold enrichment) and Sb (median: 17.3 mg/kg; IQR: 5.5–39 mg/kg; ~ 29-fold enrichment), with moderate enrichment of Ag, Se, Zn, Cd, Cu, and As (~ 2.5–12-fold) relative to semi-urban control soils. Lithogenic elements showed minimal enrichment. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment indicated greater risk in children (hazard index, HI = 0.98), approaching the acceptable threshold, compared to adults (HI = 0.10), with Sb as the major contributor. Ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway, accounting for 88.6% of total exposure in children and 80.1% in adults. Although Pb lacks a reference dose, margin of exposure (MOE) analysis indicated very high risk in children (MOE = 0.08) and moderate risk in adults (MOE = 1.41). Lifetime carcinogenic risks from As, Cd, and Cr yielded total risks of 2.49 × 10⁻4 for children (exceeding the commonly accepted threshold of 1 × 10⁻4) and 2.67 × 10⁻5 for adults (within the acceptable range). Chromium dominated cancer risk despite low enrichment, reflecting its high toxic potency. Overall, informal ULAB repair activities generate distinct Pb and Sb co-contamination hotspots posing significant health risks, particularly for children, underscoring the need for targeted regulation and exposure mitigation.