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<p>Groundwater and surface quality in the hard rock terrain of the Perambalur district, southern India, were assessed using collected 40 samples during October 2024, representing the integrated hydrochemical, health risk, drinking and irrigation suitability, and hotspot evaluation for this region. Physicochemical parameters (pH, EC, TDS, major, and minor ions) were analyzed for water suitability and health risk assessment. Although pH (6.58–8.24), Ca (3.8–158.9&#xa0;mg/L), and K (1.07–10.69&#xa0;mg/L) are within safe limits, exceedances were observed for TDS (65%, &gt; 500&#xa0;mg/L), total hardness (12.5% &gt; 600&#xa0;mg/L), fluoride (15% &gt; 1.5&#xa0;mg/L), and nitrate (47.5% &gt; 45&#xa0;mg/L). Hydrochemical facies indicate Ca–Cl (82%) and Ca-HCO<sub>3</sub> (12.5%) water types, confirming that mineral weathering is the primary geochemical control, with secondary influences from evaporation and anthropogenic inputs. Multivariate analyses (PCA, correlation, HCA) further reveal strong positive loading of fluoride and nitrate on contamination components. The drinking water quality index shows that 95% of samples are suitable for drinking (DWQI &lt; 100), while 5% falls in the poor category (DWQI &gt; 100). Irrigation indices demonstrate that SAR (0.41–5.83&#xa0;meq/L), RSC (−11.4–(−0.26&#xa0;meq/L), Na% (9.86–59.58%), PI (22.85–73.15%), and EC (45.8–2730 µS/cm) are acceptable for irrigation, whereas KR (37% &gt; 1) and MH (55% &gt; 50) indicate sodium and magnesium hazards in localized zones, which may impact soil structure and permeability under prolonged use. Health risk assessment identifies ingestion as the dominant exposure pathway, with the highest total hazard index (THI) for infants (25% &gt; 1), children (25% &gt; 1), and adults (0%), primarily driven by nitrate and fluoride exposure. Spatial analysis highlights fluoride hotspots in the central-northeastern regions and nitrate hotspots in the central-eastern region, where the combined hazard index exceeds the safe threshold (&gt; 1). The study finds the urgency of sustainable groundwater management, optimized fertilizer application, and continuous monitoring to mitigate geogenic and anthropogenic contamination risks and protect public health.</p>

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Geogenic and anthropogenic controls on water quality and associated health risks in the hard rock, southern India

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月3日

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  • Anbarasu Subramaniyan

摘要

Groundwater and surface quality in the hard rock terrain of the Perambalur district, southern India, were assessed using collected 40 samples during October 2024, representing the integrated hydrochemical, health risk, drinking and irrigation suitability, and hotspot evaluation for this region. Physicochemical parameters (pH, EC, TDS, major, and minor ions) were analyzed for water suitability and health risk assessment. Although pH (6.58–8.24), Ca (3.8–158.9 mg/L), and K (1.07–10.69 mg/L) are within safe limits, exceedances were observed for TDS (65%, > 500 mg/L), total hardness (12.5% > 600 mg/L), fluoride (15% > 1.5 mg/L), and nitrate (47.5% > 45 mg/L). Hydrochemical facies indicate Ca–Cl (82%) and Ca-HCO3 (12.5%) water types, confirming that mineral weathering is the primary geochemical control, with secondary influences from evaporation and anthropogenic inputs. Multivariate analyses (PCA, correlation, HCA) further reveal strong positive loading of fluoride and nitrate on contamination components. The drinking water quality index shows that 95% of samples are suitable for drinking (DWQI < 100), while 5% falls in the poor category (DWQI > 100). Irrigation indices demonstrate that SAR (0.41–5.83 meq/L), RSC (−11.4–(−0.26 meq/L), Na% (9.86–59.58%), PI (22.85–73.15%), and EC (45.8–2730 µS/cm) are acceptable for irrigation, whereas KR (37% > 1) and MH (55% > 50) indicate sodium and magnesium hazards in localized zones, which may impact soil structure and permeability under prolonged use. Health risk assessment identifies ingestion as the dominant exposure pathway, with the highest total hazard index (THI) for infants (25% > 1), children (25% > 1), and adults (0%), primarily driven by nitrate and fluoride exposure. Spatial analysis highlights fluoride hotspots in the central-northeastern regions and nitrate hotspots in the central-eastern region, where the combined hazard index exceeds the safe threshold (> 1). The study finds the urgency of sustainable groundwater management, optimized fertilizer application, and continuous monitoring to mitigate geogenic and anthropogenic contamination risks and protect public health.