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<p>The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) applications in electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and stationary energy storage systems has intensified concerns regarding lithium resource availability, environmental impacts, and end-of-life battery management. This review critically examines the entire lithium recovery chain from spent LIBs, beginning with lithium resources and battery chemistry and extending to pretreatment, separation, extraction, purification, and recovery technologies. Particular emphasis is placed on hydrometallurgical processes, which currently offer high metal recovery efficiencies and product purity, as well as emerging approaches including direct recycling, deep eutectic solvent (DES)-based extraction, mechanochemical processing, and bioleaching. Recent advances in selective leaching systems, green solvents, and closed-loop recovery strategies are evaluated in terms of recovery efficiency, sustainability, and industrial applicability. The review further discusses major barriers to commercialization, including collection inefficiencies, battery chemistry heterogeneity, safety concerns, economic dependence on metal prices, and limited recycling infrastructure. Environmental sustainability is assessed through life cycle assessment (LCA) perspectives and resource management frameworks, highlighting the role of recycling in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and dependence on primary mining. Finally, future research directions are proposed for developing integrated, low-energy, environmentally benign, and economically viable recycling systems capable of supporting next-generation battery chemistries and circular economy objectives.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Sustainable Lithium Recovery from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: From Conventional Recycling to Emerging Circular Economy Approaches

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月8日

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  • Pinki Yadav,
  • Shina Gautam,
  • Alok Gautam,
  • Ashish Kapoor,
  • Girdhari L. Devnani

摘要

The rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery (LIB) applications in electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and stationary energy storage systems has intensified concerns regarding lithium resource availability, environmental impacts, and end-of-life battery management. This review critically examines the entire lithium recovery chain from spent LIBs, beginning with lithium resources and battery chemistry and extending to pretreatment, separation, extraction, purification, and recovery technologies. Particular emphasis is placed on hydrometallurgical processes, which currently offer high metal recovery efficiencies and product purity, as well as emerging approaches including direct recycling, deep eutectic solvent (DES)-based extraction, mechanochemical processing, and bioleaching. Recent advances in selective leaching systems, green solvents, and closed-loop recovery strategies are evaluated in terms of recovery efficiency, sustainability, and industrial applicability. The review further discusses major barriers to commercialization, including collection inefficiencies, battery chemistry heterogeneity, safety concerns, economic dependence on metal prices, and limited recycling infrastructure. Environmental sustainability is assessed through life cycle assessment (LCA) perspectives and resource management frameworks, highlighting the role of recycling in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and dependence on primary mining. Finally, future research directions are proposed for developing integrated, low-energy, environmentally benign, and economically viable recycling systems capable of supporting next-generation battery chemistries and circular economy objectives.

Graphical Abstract