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<p>This study discusses the preparation and the adsorption efficacy of a new biochar (CTAB-SSF) synthesised through co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge (SS) and sunflower seed husk (SF), subsequently activated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), for the removal of tetracycline (TC). The biochar exhibited a peak adsorption capacity of 29.66 mg/g under optimised conditions, as determined by the Box-Behnken Design (BBD) experiment. The adsorption kinetics were fitted to a pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption, while the isotherm data were best represented by the Langmuir model, indicating monolayer adsorption on a homogeneous surface. Thermodynamic characteristics indicated that the adsorption process was spontaneous and endothermic. Regeneration experiments indicated that CTAB-SSF retained approximately 85% of its adsorption efficacy after five cycles. Density Functional Theory (DFT), utilising the B3LYP/6-311G basis set, was used. Smaller (ΔE<sub>gap</sub>) values are associated with enhanced inhibition efficiencies. In this context, the calculations reveal that TC, with a markedly elevated E<sub>HOMO</sub> value, has a greater capacity to donate electrons to the BC surface. Furthermore, there is an agreement between the experimental results and the conclusions of this computational modelling. The adsorption mechanisms were primarily governed by electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, and hydrophobic partitioning, facilitated by the CTAB-induced surface functional groups. These findings highlight CTAB-SSF as an efficient and sustainable adsorbent for the removal of TC from wastewater.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide -Activated Biochar for Efficient Tetracycline Adsorption: Optimisation and Mechanistic Insights

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月11日

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  • Hafidha Rahmoune,
  • Beiyu Xin,
  • Soundous Dahlab,
  • Mohamed Nasser,
  • Sundus Ahmed Mohsen Abomunassar,
  • Jifeng Guo,
  • Changyu Lu

摘要

This study discusses the preparation and the adsorption efficacy of a new biochar (CTAB-SSF) synthesised through co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge (SS) and sunflower seed husk (SF), subsequently activated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), for the removal of tetracycline (TC). The biochar exhibited a peak adsorption capacity of 29.66 mg/g under optimised conditions, as determined by the Box-Behnken Design (BBD) experiment. The adsorption kinetics were fitted to a pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption, while the isotherm data were best represented by the Langmuir model, indicating monolayer adsorption on a homogeneous surface. Thermodynamic characteristics indicated that the adsorption process was spontaneous and endothermic. Regeneration experiments indicated that CTAB-SSF retained approximately 85% of its adsorption efficacy after five cycles. Density Functional Theory (DFT), utilising the B3LYP/6-311G basis set, was used. Smaller (ΔEgap) values are associated with enhanced inhibition efficiencies. In this context, the calculations reveal that TC, with a markedly elevated EHOMO value, has a greater capacity to donate electrons to the BC surface. Furthermore, there is an agreement between the experimental results and the conclusions of this computational modelling. The adsorption mechanisms were primarily governed by electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, and hydrophobic partitioning, facilitated by the CTAB-induced surface functional groups. These findings highlight CTAB-SSF as an efficient and sustainable adsorbent for the removal of TC from wastewater.

Graphical Abstract