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<p>Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and their precursors are particularly noteworthy because of their long half-lives, amphiphilic nature (hydrophobic fluorinated tail and hydrophilic head), and thermal stability. PFAS are extensively used across various industries and incorporated into numerous household products. Their persistence leads to accumulation in the environment, where they are detected in air, soil, and water. This systematic review highlights PFAS contamination in developing countries. The abundance of PFAS in water is highest in Colombia (60–520&#xa0;ng/L), followed by Kenya (392&#xa0;ng/L), China (66.2–182&#xa0;ng/L), Pakistan (19.9–114.1&#xa0;ng/L), Bangladesh (10.6–46.8&#xa0;ng/L), and India (1.3–15.9&#xa0;ng/L). Soil contamination in Bangladesh ranges from 1.07–8.15&#xa0;ng/g. Air samples show notable PFAS presence in India (0.38&#xa0;pg/m3) and China, which has the highest recorded level at 20.8&#xa0;pg/m3. Due to their bioaccumulative nature, PFAS have been found in human blood, urine, and hair, indicating multiple exposure pathways that may contribute to severe health effects, including kidney tumors, liver toxicity, and reproductive dysfunction. While numerous studies have explored PFAS contamination and its impacts in developed countries, data from developing nations remains scarce. These regions are particularly vulnerable to PFAS exposure due to rapid industrialization, inadequate waste management systems, and limited regulatory frameworks. This review focuses on the distribution, sources, environmental pathways, and behaviour of PFAS in developing countries. It also highlights the ecological and health effects of PFAS, the state-of-the-art research, and identifies research gaps and future directions for improving the understanding and mitigation of PFAS pollution in these regions.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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A State-of-the-Art Review of the Environmental Mixtures, Exposure, and Health Risks of PFAS: A Special Focus on Developing Countries

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年6月18日

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  • Amit Hasan Anik,
  • Intehum Taufique Aurnab,
  • Maisha Binte Sultan,
  • Md. Samium Basir,
  • Md. Fahim Murshed,
  • Jannatul Mustari Jarin,
  • Raihan Sorker,
  • Mahbub Alam,
  • Shafi M. Tareq

摘要

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and their precursors are particularly noteworthy because of their long half-lives, amphiphilic nature (hydrophobic fluorinated tail and hydrophilic head), and thermal stability. PFAS are extensively used across various industries and incorporated into numerous household products. Their persistence leads to accumulation in the environment, where they are detected in air, soil, and water. This systematic review highlights PFAS contamination in developing countries. The abundance of PFAS in water is highest in Colombia (60–520 ng/L), followed by Kenya (392 ng/L), China (66.2–182 ng/L), Pakistan (19.9–114.1 ng/L), Bangladesh (10.6–46.8 ng/L), and India (1.3–15.9 ng/L). Soil contamination in Bangladesh ranges from 1.07–8.15 ng/g. Air samples show notable PFAS presence in India (0.38 pg/m3) and China, which has the highest recorded level at 20.8 pg/m3. Due to their bioaccumulative nature, PFAS have been found in human blood, urine, and hair, indicating multiple exposure pathways that may contribute to severe health effects, including kidney tumors, liver toxicity, and reproductive dysfunction. While numerous studies have explored PFAS contamination and its impacts in developed countries, data from developing nations remains scarce. These regions are particularly vulnerable to PFAS exposure due to rapid industrialization, inadequate waste management systems, and limited regulatory frameworks. This review focuses on the distribution, sources, environmental pathways, and behaviour of PFAS in developing countries. It also highlights the ecological and health effects of PFAS, the state-of-the-art research, and identifies research gaps and future directions for improving the understanding and mitigation of PFAS pollution in these regions.

Graphical Abstract