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Background <p>Chronic inflammation contributes to breast cancer development through the phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂)–cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)–nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) cascade, which regulates prostaglandin synthesis, oxidative stress, and transcription of pro-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic genes. This pathway is particularly active in HER2-positive breast cancer, promoting proliferation, invasion, and resistance to apoptosis. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen and nimesulide target COX enzymes and have shown potential in suppressing inflammation-driven tumorigenesis. In this study, we evaluated the anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity of newly synthesized, structurally modified ibuprofen and nimesulide derivatives designed to modulate PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB axis.</p> Methods and Results <p>Cytotoxicity was assessed in HER2-positive breast cancer cells (AU565 and SKBR3) and compared with normal dermal fibroblasts (HDF) and breast epithelial cells (MCF-12A), using WST-1 assays. Apoptosis, cell cycle distribution, caspase-3/7 activation, and ROS generation were analyzed by imaging-based assays, flow cytometry, and fluorescence methods. Gene expression of <i>PLA2G2A</i> and <i>PTGS2</i> was quantified by qRT-PCR, and NF-κB translocation was analyzed by immunocytochemistry. Two ibuprofen triazole derivative (<b>D1</b>) and ibuprofen thioether derivative (<b>D7</b>) and one nimesulide derivative (<b>D8</b>) significantly reduced cell viability in a dose-dependent manner without affecting normal cells. These derivatives induced G₀/G₁ arrest, caspase-3/7 activation, ROS reduction, and increased late apoptosis. Downregulation of <i>PLA2G2A</i> and <i>PTGS2</i> expression and inhibition of NF-κB translocation confirmed disruption of the PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB cascade.</p> Conclusion <p>These findings demonstrate that structurally optimized ibuprofen and nimesulide derivatives exert dual anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects in HER2-positive breast cancer by suppressing PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB pathway and promoting apoptotic cell death.</p>

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Ibuprofen and nimesulide derivatives selectively induce apoptosis in HER2-positive breast cancer via inhibition of the PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB pathway

  • 期刊论文

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月24日

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  • Egemen Çakırlı,
  • İpek Bedir,
  • Yağmur Biliz,
  • Özgür Yılmaz,
  • Ş. Güniz Küçükgüzel,
  • Dilek Telci

摘要

Background

Chronic inflammation contributes to breast cancer development through the phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂)–cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)–nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) cascade, which regulates prostaglandin synthesis, oxidative stress, and transcription of pro-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic genes. This pathway is particularly active in HER2-positive breast cancer, promoting proliferation, invasion, and resistance to apoptosis. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen and nimesulide target COX enzymes and have shown potential in suppressing inflammation-driven tumorigenesis. In this study, we evaluated the anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity of newly synthesized, structurally modified ibuprofen and nimesulide derivatives designed to modulate PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB axis.

Methods and Results

Cytotoxicity was assessed in HER2-positive breast cancer cells (AU565 and SKBR3) and compared with normal dermal fibroblasts (HDF) and breast epithelial cells (MCF-12A), using WST-1 assays. Apoptosis, cell cycle distribution, caspase-3/7 activation, and ROS generation were analyzed by imaging-based assays, flow cytometry, and fluorescence methods. Gene expression of PLA2G2A and PTGS2 was quantified by qRT-PCR, and NF-κB translocation was analyzed by immunocytochemistry. Two ibuprofen triazole derivative (D1) and ibuprofen thioether derivative (D7) and one nimesulide derivative (D8) significantly reduced cell viability in a dose-dependent manner without affecting normal cells. These derivatives induced G₀/G₁ arrest, caspase-3/7 activation, ROS reduction, and increased late apoptosis. Downregulation of PLA2G2A and PTGS2 expression and inhibition of NF-κB translocation confirmed disruption of the PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB cascade.

Conclusion

These findings demonstrate that structurally optimized ibuprofen and nimesulide derivatives exert dual anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects in HER2-positive breast cancer by suppressing PLA₂–COX-2–NF-κB pathway and promoting apoptotic cell death.