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<p>Fluoride ion (F⁻) exhibits a dual role in environmental and biological systems, being beneficial at trace levels but toxic at elevated concentrations, necessitating reliable detection methods. Small-molecule optical probes, particularly colorimetric and fluorescent chemosensors, have emerged as efficient tools due to their simplicity, high sensitivity, and real-time response. This review summarizes the sources, industrial applications, and toxicological impacts of fluoride, and highlights key sensing mechanisms including hydrogen bonding, π-conjugation modulation, Lewis acid–base coordination, desilylation, and fluoride-induced deprotonation. Recent developments in heterocycle-based probes derived from imidazole, coumarin, thiazole, naphthalimide, and Schiff base frameworks are discussed, emphasizing structure–activity relationships, selectivity, and practical sensing applications.</p>

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Fluoride ion recognition by small-molecule optical probes: from binding mechanisms to applications

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月3日

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  • Duraisamy Udhayakumari

摘要

Fluoride ion (F⁻) exhibits a dual role in environmental and biological systems, being beneficial at trace levels but toxic at elevated concentrations, necessitating reliable detection methods. Small-molecule optical probes, particularly colorimetric and fluorescent chemosensors, have emerged as efficient tools due to their simplicity, high sensitivity, and real-time response. This review summarizes the sources, industrial applications, and toxicological impacts of fluoride, and highlights key sensing mechanisms including hydrogen bonding, π-conjugation modulation, Lewis acid–base coordination, desilylation, and fluoride-induced deprotonation. Recent developments in heterocycle-based probes derived from imidazole, coumarin, thiazole, naphthalimide, and Schiff base frameworks are discussed, emphasizing structure–activity relationships, selectivity, and practical sensing applications.