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<p>Groundwater phosphate pollution is an emerging environmental concern in regions facing rapid urbanization and agricultural intensification. The Surabaya-Lamongan Groundwater Basin (SLGB) in East Java, Indonesia, exemplifies such conditions, where diverse land uses and anthropogenic pressures threaten groundwater quality. This study systematically assessed phosphate contamination across a rural–urban gradient to identify spatial variability, contamination sources, and the influence of well depth and land use–land cover (LULC) on phosphate distribution. Fifty-eight groundwater samples were collected from wells representing different LULC categories and aquifer depths using a grid-based sampling design. Phosphate concentrations were analyzed by UV–Vis spectrophotometry employing the phosphomolybdenum blue method. LULC classification was derived from Landsat 7 ETM + (2000) and Landsat 8 OLI TIRS (2021) imagery. Statistical analyses including independent samples <i>t</i>-test, one-way ANOVA, and one-sample <i>t</i>-test were used to differentiate contamination patterns and evaluate exceedances of the 0.2&#xa0;mg/L drinking water threshold. Phosphate concentrations were significantly higher in shallow wells than in deep wells (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.05). Residential areas exhibited the highest mean value (1.107&#xa0;mg/L), followed by agricultural land (0.337&#xa0;mg/L), while industrial zones had the lowest (0.168&#xa0;mg/L). The overall mean phosphate concentration (0.627&#xa0;mg/L) exceeded the permissible limit (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), with notable spatial variability across administrative regions. The study provides the first integrated, depth-dependent assessment of phosphate contamination in the SLGB, linking LULC dynamics with groundwater vulnerability across a rural–urban gradient. These findings underscore the need for targeted management strategies to reduce phosphate loading and ensure sustainable groundwater use in rapidly developing basins.</p>

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Spatial variability of phosphate groundwater based on land use–land cover and groundwater quality on increasing rural to urban areas

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年12月6日

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  • Arif Gunawan,
  • Dasapta Erwin Irawan,
  • Achmad Darul,
  • Rusmawan Suwarman

摘要

Groundwater phosphate pollution is an emerging environmental concern in regions facing rapid urbanization and agricultural intensification. The Surabaya-Lamongan Groundwater Basin (SLGB) in East Java, Indonesia, exemplifies such conditions, where diverse land uses and anthropogenic pressures threaten groundwater quality. This study systematically assessed phosphate contamination across a rural–urban gradient to identify spatial variability, contamination sources, and the influence of well depth and land use–land cover (LULC) on phosphate distribution. Fifty-eight groundwater samples were collected from wells representing different LULC categories and aquifer depths using a grid-based sampling design. Phosphate concentrations were analyzed by UV–Vis spectrophotometry employing the phosphomolybdenum blue method. LULC classification was derived from Landsat 7 ETM + (2000) and Landsat 8 OLI TIRS (2021) imagery. Statistical analyses including independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, and one-sample t-test were used to differentiate contamination patterns and evaluate exceedances of the 0.2 mg/L drinking water threshold. Phosphate concentrations were significantly higher in shallow wells than in deep wells (p < 0.05). Residential areas exhibited the highest mean value (1.107 mg/L), followed by agricultural land (0.337 mg/L), while industrial zones had the lowest (0.168 mg/L). The overall mean phosphate concentration (0.627 mg/L) exceeded the permissible limit (p < 0.001), with notable spatial variability across administrative regions. The study provides the first integrated, depth-dependent assessment of phosphate contamination in the SLGB, linking LULC dynamics with groundwater vulnerability across a rural–urban gradient. These findings underscore the need for targeted management strategies to reduce phosphate loading and ensure sustainable groundwater use in rapidly developing basins.