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<p>Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used flame retardants and plasticisers; however, baseline data on their occurrence in India remain limited. This study investigated 15 OPFRs and 6 PAEs in playground soils along an urban–rural gradient in Nagpur, central India, to assess occurrence, spatial distribution, and potential sources. Total concentrations of twelve OPFRs (Σ<sub>12</sub>OPFRs) ranged from 40.9 to 2,740 ng/g (mean: 339 ± 435 ng/g), while six PAEs (Σ<sub>6</sub>PAEs) varied from 35.0 to 2,550 ng/g (mean: 320 ± 394 ng/g). Σ<sub>12</sub>OPFR concentrations were significantly higher in rural transects than in urban areas&#xa0;(p &lt; 0.05). OPFR profiles were dominated by alkyl OPFRs (57%), followed by aryl (32%) and chlorinated OPFRs (11%), with tris-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) as the most abundant compound (31%) and significantly enriched in rural soils (p &lt; 0.05). PAEs were dominated by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP; 76%), followed by di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP; 15%). Principal component analysis resolved five components, identifying polymeric and consumer product sources (TDCIPP, TICIPP, TPhP, TIPrP), industrial and petrochemical inputs (TpCP), plasticizer- and agriculture-related sources (DEHP, TnBP), and diffuse atmospheric, polymeric, and traffic-related contributions (DEP, TEP, DMP, TMP). Human health risk assessment indicated a negligible risk, with maximum hazard index values of 3.49 × 10<sup>−3</sup> for children and 8.91 × 10<sup>−4</sup> for adults, and incremental lifetime cancer risk values ranging from 3.33 × 10<sup>−9</sup> to 4.79 × 10<sup>−8</sup>, all of which fall within the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s acceptable limits. Elevated OPFRs levels in rural areas highlight concerns related to long-range atmospheric transport and diffuse pollution hotspots locally.</p>

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Occurrence, sources, and risk assessment of organophosphate flame retardants and phthalate esters in playground soils across an urban–rural gradient in central India

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月17日

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  • K. Ronnie Rex,
  • Ishan Singh,
  • S. Subramani,
  • Sanjeev Kumar Singh,
  • Gajanan Sitaramji Kanade,
  • A. Ramesh Kumar

摘要

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used flame retardants and plasticisers; however, baseline data on their occurrence in India remain limited. This study investigated 15 OPFRs and 6 PAEs in playground soils along an urban–rural gradient in Nagpur, central India, to assess occurrence, spatial distribution, and potential sources. Total concentrations of twelve OPFRs (Σ12OPFRs) ranged from 40.9 to 2,740 ng/g (mean: 339 ± 435 ng/g), while six PAEs (Σ6PAEs) varied from 35.0 to 2,550 ng/g (mean: 320 ± 394 ng/g). Σ12OPFR concentrations were significantly higher in rural transects than in urban areas (p < 0.05). OPFR profiles were dominated by alkyl OPFRs (57%), followed by aryl (32%) and chlorinated OPFRs (11%), with tris-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) as the most abundant compound (31%) and significantly enriched in rural soils (p < 0.05). PAEs were dominated by di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP; 76%), followed by di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP; 15%). Principal component analysis resolved five components, identifying polymeric and consumer product sources (TDCIPP, TICIPP, TPhP, TIPrP), industrial and petrochemical inputs (TpCP), plasticizer- and agriculture-related sources (DEHP, TnBP), and diffuse atmospheric, polymeric, and traffic-related contributions (DEP, TEP, DMP, TMP). Human health risk assessment indicated a negligible risk, with maximum hazard index values of 3.49 × 10−3 for children and 8.91 × 10−4 for adults, and incremental lifetime cancer risk values ranging from 3.33 × 10−9 to 4.79 × 10−8, all of which fall within the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s acceptable limits. Elevated OPFRs levels in rural areas highlight concerns related to long-range atmospheric transport and diffuse pollution hotspots locally.