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<p>Airborne bacterial contamination in hospitals poses significant risk, particularly for immunocompromised patients. This study investigated seasonal variation in airborne bacterial loads and disinfectant resistance across six sites of a public hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan. Airborne samples were collected using passive sampling across four seasons while environmental parameters (carbon dioxide, temperature, and relative humidity) were recorded to assess associations with bacterial loads. Carbon dioxide exceeded Indoor Climate and Occupational Parameters Indoor Air Quality guidelines 2010 limits across seasons, while temperatures exceeded thresholds in summer and autumn seasons. Bacterial identification using 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed predominant Gram-positive genera, particularly <i>Staphylococcus, Bacillus</i>, and <i>Corynebacterium</i>. Disinfectant resistance testing showed high resistance (65–80%) to phenol, formaldehyde, and isopropyl alcohol, while sodium hypochlorite exhibited 75–90% effectiveness. Site specific analysis indicated that outpatient department and emergency ward had highest bacterial loads (10,967 ± 6702 and 7439 ± 639&#xa0;CFU/m<sup>3</sup>), exceeding Portuguese standard of 500&#xa0;CFU/m<sup>3</sup>, while mechanically ventilated areas such as operation theater and intensive care unit showed lower loads throughout seasons. Although no statistically significant seasonal variation was detected, the highest bacterial load was observed in spring and the lowest in autumn season. Heat map analysis showed increased bacterial diversity in high occupancy areas, particularly in outpatient department, emergency ward, and outdoors. Principal component analysis identified human occupancy and temperature as major contributors to microbial variations. These findings highlight emergence of disinfectant-resistant bacteria and emphasize the need for seasonal monitoring and targeted environmental management strategies to mitigate hospital-acquired infections.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Seasonal fluctuation of airborne bacterial dynamics and disinfectant resistance in hospital environment

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月22日

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  • Shabana Bano,
  • Imran Hashmi,
  • Muhammad Akhtar Khan,
  • Aiza Javed,
  • Nazish Iftikhar

摘要

Airborne bacterial contamination in hospitals poses significant risk, particularly for immunocompromised patients. This study investigated seasonal variation in airborne bacterial loads and disinfectant resistance across six sites of a public hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan. Airborne samples were collected using passive sampling across four seasons while environmental parameters (carbon dioxide, temperature, and relative humidity) were recorded to assess associations with bacterial loads. Carbon dioxide exceeded Indoor Climate and Occupational Parameters Indoor Air Quality guidelines 2010 limits across seasons, while temperatures exceeded thresholds in summer and autumn seasons. Bacterial identification using 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed predominant Gram-positive genera, particularly Staphylococcus, Bacillus, and Corynebacterium. Disinfectant resistance testing showed high resistance (65–80%) to phenol, formaldehyde, and isopropyl alcohol, while sodium hypochlorite exhibited 75–90% effectiveness. Site specific analysis indicated that outpatient department and emergency ward had highest bacterial loads (10,967 ± 6702 and 7439 ± 639 CFU/m3), exceeding Portuguese standard of 500 CFU/m3, while mechanically ventilated areas such as operation theater and intensive care unit showed lower loads throughout seasons. Although no statistically significant seasonal variation was detected, the highest bacterial load was observed in spring and the lowest in autumn season. Heat map analysis showed increased bacterial diversity in high occupancy areas, particularly in outpatient department, emergency ward, and outdoors. Principal component analysis identified human occupancy and temperature as major contributors to microbial variations. These findings highlight emergence of disinfectant-resistant bacteria and emphasize the need for seasonal monitoring and targeted environmental management strategies to mitigate hospital-acquired infections.

Graphical abstract