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<p>Zoosporic parasites represent a pervasive and structurally embedded biosecurity challenge in large-scale microalgae cultivation systems. These fungal and fungal-like organisms, characterised by motile zoospores, combine active host localisation, rapid intracellular development, and long-term persistence through resistant resting stages. Under the high-density, monoculture conditions typical of industrial production, such life-history traits facilitate rapid transmission, nonlinear outbreak dynamics, and recurrent culture collapse. Despite their demonstrated impact on productivity, economic performance, and operational continuity, zoosporic parasites remain insufficiently integrated into routine monitoring frameworks and risk management strategies, with control practices still largely reactive.</p><p>This review synthesises current knowledge on the diversity, infection strategies, and life-cycle dynamics of zoosporic parasites affecting microalgae, and links these biological mechanisms to environmental and operational drivers, including irradiance, temperature, nutrient stoichiometry, and pH regulation. A central conclusion emerging from this synthesis is that infection controllability is fundamentally time-dependent. Preventive and containment measures are most effective during early infection stages, when parasite prevalence is low and before intracellular amplification and resting-stage formation dominate system dynamics. Once critical prevalence thresholds are exceeded, management options narrow substantially, shifting from containment to damage limitation through salvage harvesting, system shutdown, and restart.</p><p>To address this constraint, we propose a layered, stage-aware diagnostic framework that aligns monitoring tools with their functional role in outbreak detection and response. System-level early-warning indicators provide continuous surveillance but limited specificity; microscopy enables rapid confirmation; flow cytometry supports quantitative assessment of infection prevalence; and molecular tools, including metabarcoding and digital PCR, offer high-resolution taxonomic identification. Emerging digital diagnostics and AI-assisted analytics further enable integration of multi-parametric sensor data and anomaly detection, creating opportunities for anticipatory, data-driven decision support.</p><p>Evidence from the ParAqua Survey indicates that late detection and recurrent outbreaks remain common across research and industrial facilities, underscoring a persistent gap between mechanistic understanding and operational implementation. We argue that effective management of zoosporic infections requires an integrated framework combining biosecurity-oriented system design, early-warning diagnostics, quantitative modelling of host–parasite dynamics, and predefined response strategies. Shifting from reactive contamination control toward resilience-oriented, model-informed management is essential for achieving stable, scalable, and economically viable microalgae production under sustained biological pressure.</p>

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Managing zoosporic infections in microalgae production systems: ecology, detection, risk factors, and biosecurity strategies

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月2日

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  • Maja Berden Zrimec,
  • Narcis Ferrer-Ledo,
  • Pietro Marchese,
  • Belen Villarreal Toribio,
  • Ana Gavrilović,
  • Alena S. Gsell,
  • Hans-Peter Grossart,
  • Antonio Ida,
  • Mélissa José,
  • Jurica Jug-Dujaković,
  • Silke van den Wyngaert,
  • Mohamed Abady,
  • Fusun Akgul,
  • Agnés Attard,
  • Selene Chinaglia,
  • Laura Garzoli,
  • Eman M. Fakhry,
  • Esraa E. Fawzy,
  • Thijs Frenken,
  • Daniel Kurpan,
  • Nagwa Mohammady,
  • Amani M. W. Nasser,
  • Dina M. Osman,
  • Cristina Paulino,
  • Serena Rasconi,
  • Ana Sanchez Zurano,
  • Jörg Ullmann,
  • Ghada Youssef,
  • Joāo Varela,
  • Gabriel Acien

摘要

Zoosporic parasites represent a pervasive and structurally embedded biosecurity challenge in large-scale microalgae cultivation systems. These fungal and fungal-like organisms, characterised by motile zoospores, combine active host localisation, rapid intracellular development, and long-term persistence through resistant resting stages. Under the high-density, monoculture conditions typical of industrial production, such life-history traits facilitate rapid transmission, nonlinear outbreak dynamics, and recurrent culture collapse. Despite their demonstrated impact on productivity, economic performance, and operational continuity, zoosporic parasites remain insufficiently integrated into routine monitoring frameworks and risk management strategies, with control practices still largely reactive.

This review synthesises current knowledge on the diversity, infection strategies, and life-cycle dynamics of zoosporic parasites affecting microalgae, and links these biological mechanisms to environmental and operational drivers, including irradiance, temperature, nutrient stoichiometry, and pH regulation. A central conclusion emerging from this synthesis is that infection controllability is fundamentally time-dependent. Preventive and containment measures are most effective during early infection stages, when parasite prevalence is low and before intracellular amplification and resting-stage formation dominate system dynamics. Once critical prevalence thresholds are exceeded, management options narrow substantially, shifting from containment to damage limitation through salvage harvesting, system shutdown, and restart.

To address this constraint, we propose a layered, stage-aware diagnostic framework that aligns monitoring tools with their functional role in outbreak detection and response. System-level early-warning indicators provide continuous surveillance but limited specificity; microscopy enables rapid confirmation; flow cytometry supports quantitative assessment of infection prevalence; and molecular tools, including metabarcoding and digital PCR, offer high-resolution taxonomic identification. Emerging digital diagnostics and AI-assisted analytics further enable integration of multi-parametric sensor data and anomaly detection, creating opportunities for anticipatory, data-driven decision support.

Evidence from the ParAqua Survey indicates that late detection and recurrent outbreaks remain common across research and industrial facilities, underscoring a persistent gap between mechanistic understanding and operational implementation. We argue that effective management of zoosporic infections requires an integrated framework combining biosecurity-oriented system design, early-warning diagnostics, quantitative modelling of host–parasite dynamics, and predefined response strategies. Shifting from reactive contamination control toward resilience-oriented, model-informed management is essential for achieving stable, scalable, and economically viable microalgae production under sustained biological pressure.