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<p>The ocean’s physical properties and ecological complexity shape a unique selective environment for the evolution of cognition and behaviour in marine life. This review explores how marine organisms sense, interpret, and act upon information in a three-dimensional space that shifts constantly, influenced by light attenuation, sound transmission, and hydrodynamic flow. We combine information across taxa to show how social and environmental pressures have influenced both domain-specific specialisation and domain-general flexibility. From the diffuse nerve nets of cnidarians to the complex brains of cephalopods and cetaceans, marine cognition displays multiple evolutionary pathways to abilities like problem-solving, learning, and innovation. In ectothermic fish, modular brain systems seem to manage specialised tasks such as social negotiation or spatial learning. Meanwhile, endothermic marine mammals exhibit domain-general intelligence characterised by behavioural flexibility and cultural transmission. It is also discussed individual and social learning behaviours, including cooperation, imitation and teaching, and their ecological significance in marine ecosystems. Unknown insights into cognition under natural conditions are now possible thanks to recent technological developments, including biologging, autonomous vehicles, acoustic monitoring, and neurogenomic tools. Finally, we discuss how anthropogenic stressors such as pollution, artificial noise and light disrupt behavioural plasticity, with implications for adaptation and species resilience. This review combines evolutionary, behavioural, and technical perspectives to present the ocean as a testing ground for cognitive evolution. Furthermore, we also advocate for the broader inclusion of marine ecosystems in ethological and comparative cognitive studies.</p>

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The ocean as a laboratory for animal intelligence

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月5日

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  • Maria Castro Mariano,
  • Francisco Louro,
  • Patrícia Pinto,
  • João Grave,
  • Victor Callais,
  • Nicolas Collazo,
  • Beatriz Pereira,
  • Daniel Gouveia,
  • Lisandra Tavares,
  • Luís Almeida,
  • Raúl Oliveira,
  • Ana S. Carmo,
  • Catherine E. Sheppard,
  • Tânia Marquês,
  • Arianna Gentili,
  • Catarina Barros,
  • José Ricardo Paula

摘要

The ocean’s physical properties and ecological complexity shape a unique selective environment for the evolution of cognition and behaviour in marine life. This review explores how marine organisms sense, interpret, and act upon information in a three-dimensional space that shifts constantly, influenced by light attenuation, sound transmission, and hydrodynamic flow. We combine information across taxa to show how social and environmental pressures have influenced both domain-specific specialisation and domain-general flexibility. From the diffuse nerve nets of cnidarians to the complex brains of cephalopods and cetaceans, marine cognition displays multiple evolutionary pathways to abilities like problem-solving, learning, and innovation. In ectothermic fish, modular brain systems seem to manage specialised tasks such as social negotiation or spatial learning. Meanwhile, endothermic marine mammals exhibit domain-general intelligence characterised by behavioural flexibility and cultural transmission. It is also discussed individual and social learning behaviours, including cooperation, imitation and teaching, and their ecological significance in marine ecosystems. Unknown insights into cognition under natural conditions are now possible thanks to recent technological developments, including biologging, autonomous vehicles, acoustic monitoring, and neurogenomic tools. Finally, we discuss how anthropogenic stressors such as pollution, artificial noise and light disrupt behavioural plasticity, with implications for adaptation and species resilience. This review combines evolutionary, behavioural, and technical perspectives to present the ocean as a testing ground for cognitive evolution. Furthermore, we also advocate for the broader inclusion of marine ecosystems in ethological and comparative cognitive studies.