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<p>Understanding how wildlife responds behaviourally to anthropogenic disturbances is central to managing human–wildlife conflicts in rural landscapes. The <i>landscape of fear</i> framework recognises humans as <i>super-predators</i> that impose high, spatiotemporal heterogeneous risks on wildlife. However, empirical studies integrating multiple behavioural indicators across sympatric species remain limited, particularly in Japanese rural landscapes. This study aimed to evaluate the behavioural responses of three sympatric ungulates—sika deer (<i>Cervus nippon</i>), wild boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>), and Japanese serow (<i>Capricornis crispus</i>)—along a gradient represented by the distance from farmland, which was used as a proxy for anthropogenic disturbances but may also reflect variation in resource availability, in Gifu Prefecture, central Japan. Using camera-trap data, three behavioural indicators were quantified—staying time, nocturnality, and photographic frequency—to evaluate how these responses vary with proximity to farmland. The results revealed species-specific patterns. Sika deer and wild boars showed a significant increase in nocturnality near farmland, whereas photographic frequency showed no significant relationship with distance from farmland. These results suggest that these ungulates primarily respond to anthropogenic disturbance through temporal adjustment rather than changes in overall site use. Japanese serows exhibited a higher photographic frequency far from the farmland, suggesting a stronger association with forested areas away from anthropogenic disturbance. No significant relationship between staying time and distance from farmland was detected for any of the three species, indicating that this composite behavioural metric was less sensitive to the disturbance gradient than spatiotemporal indicators. Overall, these results demonstrate that responses to anthropogenic disturbances are multidimensional and species-specific rather than uniform avoidance. These findings highlight the importance of integrating multiple behavioural indicators and species-specific perspectives when applying the <i>landscape of fear</i> framework to wildlife management in rural landscapes, while recognising that behavioural responses near farmland may reflect both anthropogenic risk and resource availability.</p>

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Species-specific landscapes of fear in rural landscapes: Multiple behavioural responses of three sympatric ungulates to anthropogenic disturbance

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月6日

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  • Takashi Ikeda

摘要

Understanding how wildlife responds behaviourally to anthropogenic disturbances is central to managing human–wildlife conflicts in rural landscapes. The landscape of fear framework recognises humans as super-predators that impose high, spatiotemporal heterogeneous risks on wildlife. However, empirical studies integrating multiple behavioural indicators across sympatric species remain limited, particularly in Japanese rural landscapes. This study aimed to evaluate the behavioural responses of three sympatric ungulates—sika deer (Cervus nippon), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus)—along a gradient represented by the distance from farmland, which was used as a proxy for anthropogenic disturbances but may also reflect variation in resource availability, in Gifu Prefecture, central Japan. Using camera-trap data, three behavioural indicators were quantified—staying time, nocturnality, and photographic frequency—to evaluate how these responses vary with proximity to farmland. The results revealed species-specific patterns. Sika deer and wild boars showed a significant increase in nocturnality near farmland, whereas photographic frequency showed no significant relationship with distance from farmland. These results suggest that these ungulates primarily respond to anthropogenic disturbance through temporal adjustment rather than changes in overall site use. Japanese serows exhibited a higher photographic frequency far from the farmland, suggesting a stronger association with forested areas away from anthropogenic disturbance. No significant relationship between staying time and distance from farmland was detected for any of the three species, indicating that this composite behavioural metric was less sensitive to the disturbance gradient than spatiotemporal indicators. Overall, these results demonstrate that responses to anthropogenic disturbances are multidimensional and species-specific rather than uniform avoidance. These findings highlight the importance of integrating multiple behavioural indicators and species-specific perspectives when applying the landscape of fear framework to wildlife management in rural landscapes, while recognising that behavioural responses near farmland may reflect both anthropogenic risk and resource availability.