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Objective <p>This study aimed to investigate the combined effects of cognitive rehabilitation and neurofeedback therapy on executive function and cognitive flexibility among individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS).</p> Method <p>Thirty adult females with MS (mean age = 45.02 ± 5.03 years) volunteered to participate in the study after meeting all inclusion and exclusion criteria. The participants in each age were randomly assigned to three experimental groups: cognitive rehabilitation, neurofeedback, and combined groups. All participants completed the informed consent form, the geriatric depression 15-item scale (GDS), the expanded disability status scale (EDSS), the state trait anxiety inventory (STAI), Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), and mini mental state examination (MMSE). The effectiveness of neurofeedback (NFB) therapy (NeuroComp System), executive function (CANTAB Battery), and cognitive rehabilitation therapy (CRT; Powell method) was evaluated. During the pre-test phase, participants completed a cognitive flexibility questionnaire and performed CANTAB tests related to executive function. Following this, each group followed their training protocol for six weeks (two sessions per-week). Finally, all groups completed a post-test under conditions identical to the pre-test. In the subsequent research phase, participants underwent a follow-up assessment one month after last training cessation.</p> Results <p>At post-test, the combined CRT-NFB group performed better than the CRT and NFB groups in attention switching task (<i>P</i> = 0.001, η²=0.31), reaction time (<i>P</i> = 0.011, η²=0.24), spatial working memory (<i>P</i> = 0.008, η²=0.28) and cognitive flexibility (<i>P</i> = 0.001, η²=0.33). Also, the CRT group was better than NFB group. At one-month follow-up the combined CRT-NFB group performed better than the CRT and NFB groups in attention switching task (<i>P</i> = 0.001, η²=0.22), reaction time (<i>P</i> = 0.025, η²=0.21), spatial working memory (<i>P</i> = 0.025, η²=0.23) and cognitive flexibility (<i>P</i> = 0.003, η²=0.30). CRT remained more effective than NFB in all domains except cognitive flexibility (<i>P</i> = 0.54).</p> Conclusions <p>Medium-to-large effect sizes (η²=0.21–0.30) at follow-up underscored the durability of combined CRT-NFB effects. These findings suggest that integrating CRT and NFB synergistically enhances cognitive outcomes in MS, with sustained benefits. Clinically, combining these non-pharmacological therapies may optimize treatment efficacy and long-term adherence in MS management.</p>

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Combined cognitive rehabilitation and neurofeedback therapy: effects on executive function and cognitive flexibility in people with multiple sclerosis

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月2日

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  • Parisa Motamedi,
  • Ilya Deylami,
  • Mohammad VaezMousavi,
  • Amir Shams,
  • Mohadeseh BandarRigi,
  • Saleh Rafiee

摘要

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the combined effects of cognitive rehabilitation and neurofeedback therapy on executive function and cognitive flexibility among individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS).

Method

Thirty adult females with MS (mean age = 45.02 ± 5.03 years) volunteered to participate in the study after meeting all inclusion and exclusion criteria. The participants in each age were randomly assigned to three experimental groups: cognitive rehabilitation, neurofeedback, and combined groups. All participants completed the informed consent form, the geriatric depression 15-item scale (GDS), the expanded disability status scale (EDSS), the state trait anxiety inventory (STAI), Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), and mini mental state examination (MMSE). The effectiveness of neurofeedback (NFB) therapy (NeuroComp System), executive function (CANTAB Battery), and cognitive rehabilitation therapy (CRT; Powell method) was evaluated. During the pre-test phase, participants completed a cognitive flexibility questionnaire and performed CANTAB tests related to executive function. Following this, each group followed their training protocol for six weeks (two sessions per-week). Finally, all groups completed a post-test under conditions identical to the pre-test. In the subsequent research phase, participants underwent a follow-up assessment one month after last training cessation.

Results

At post-test, the combined CRT-NFB group performed better than the CRT and NFB groups in attention switching task (P = 0.001, η²=0.31), reaction time (P = 0.011, η²=0.24), spatial working memory (P = 0.008, η²=0.28) and cognitive flexibility (P = 0.001, η²=0.33). Also, the CRT group was better than NFB group. At one-month follow-up the combined CRT-NFB group performed better than the CRT and NFB groups in attention switching task (P = 0.001, η²=0.22), reaction time (P = 0.025, η²=0.21), spatial working memory (P = 0.025, η²=0.23) and cognitive flexibility (P = 0.003, η²=0.30). CRT remained more effective than NFB in all domains except cognitive flexibility (P = 0.54).

Conclusions

Medium-to-large effect sizes (η²=0.21–0.30) at follow-up underscored the durability of combined CRT-NFB effects. These findings suggest that integrating CRT and NFB synergistically enhances cognitive outcomes in MS, with sustained benefits. Clinically, combining these non-pharmacological therapies may optimize treatment efficacy and long-term adherence in MS management.